Methods of reducing the production of reactive oxygen species and methods of screening or identifying compounds and compositions that reduce the production of reactive oxygen species

ABSTRACT

The subject application provides methods of identifying compounds, combinations of compounds, compositions, and/or combinations of compositions that are suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in an individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium. Also provided in the subject application are methods of treating diseases or disorders associated with ROS production and methods of reducing ROS production in an individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/723,042, filed Oct. 3, 2005 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/787,819, filed Mar. 31, 2006.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is increased in obesity and diabetes (Furukaw et al., 2004; Atabek et al., 2004; Lin et al., 2005; Sonta et al., 2004). It has been postulated that hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, key clinical manifestations of obesity and diabetes, may promote ROS production through multiple pathways (Inoguchi et al., 2000; Shangari et al., 2004; Chung et al., 2003). ROS are also associated with a variety of diseases or disorders. For example, ROS are associated with cataracts, heart disease, cancer, male infertility, aging, and various neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis and aging.

Previous studies from have demonstrated an anti-obesity effect of dietary calcium, with increasing dietary calcium inhibiting lipogenesis, stimulating lipolysis and thermogenesis and increasing adipocyte apoptosis (Zemel, 2005a). These effects are mediated by suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃-induced stimulation of Ca²⁺ influx and suppression of adipose UCP2 gene expression (Shi et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2002). Further, ROS production is modulated by mitochondrial uncoupling status and cytosol calcium signaling, and that 1α, 25(OH)₂D₃ regulates ROS production in cultured murine and human adipocytes (Sun et al., 2005).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The subject application provides methods of identifying compounds, combinations of compounds, compositions, and/or combinations of compositions that are suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in an individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium. Also provided in the subject application are methods of treating diseases or disorders associated with ROS production and methods of reducing ROS production in an individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Adipose intracellular ROS production in wild-type and aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6.

FIG. 2: Adipose NADPH oxidase expression in wild-type and aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6.

FIG. 3: Effect of dietary calcium on body weight and fat pads weight in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 4: Effect of dietary calcium on fasting blood glucose in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10. * indicates significant difference from the basal diet, p<0.05.

FIG. 5: Effect of dietary calcium on adipose intracellular ROS production in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 6: Effect of dietary calcium on adipose NADPH oxidase expression in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 7: Effect of dietary calcium on adipose intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i) in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 8: Effect of dietary calcium on adipose UCP2 expression in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 9: Effect of dietary calcium on soleus muscle UCP3 expression in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10. * indicates significant difference from the basal diet, p<0.05.

FIG. 10: Effect of dietary calcium on soleus muscle NADPH oxidase in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10. * indicates significant difference from the basal diet, p<0.05.

FIG. 11: Effect of dietary calcium on adipose 11β-HSD expression in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10.

FIG. 12: Effect of H₂O₂ on DNA synthesis in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either H₂O₂ (100 nmol/L) or α-tocopherol(1 μmol/L), combined with or without GDP (100 μmol/L) or nifedipine (10 μmol/L) for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 13: ROS production in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either H₂O₂ (100 nmol/L) or α-tocopherol (1 μmol/L), combined with or without GDP (100 μmol/L) or nifedipine (10 μmol/L) for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 14: Mitochondrial potential in cultured wild-type 3T3-L1 adipocytes and UCP2 transfected 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either H₂O₂ (100 nmol/L) or α-tocopherol (1 μmol/L), combined with or without GDP (100 μmol/L) or nifedipine (10 μmol/L) for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6).

FIG. 15: Intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i )in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either H₂O₂ (100 nmol/L) or H₂O₂ (100 nmol/L) plus α-tocopherol (1 μmol/L) for 4 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 16: ROS production in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus nifedipine (10 μmol/L), or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus GDP, or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 17: [Ca²⁺]i in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus α-tocopherol (1 μmol/L) for 4 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 18: Expression ratio of NADPH oxidase to 18s in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L ) plus nifedipine (10 μmol/L), glucose (30 mmol/L) plus GDP, or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 19: Expression ratio of UCP2 to 18s in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L ) plus nifedipine (10 μmol/L), glucose (30 mmol/L) plus GDP, or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 20: DNA synthesis in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus nifedipine (10 μmol/L), glucose (30 mmol/L) plus GDP, or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 21: Expression ratio of cyclin A to 18s in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treated with either glucose (30 mmol/L) or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus nifedipine (10 μmol/L), glucose (30 mmol/L) plus GDP, or glucose (30 mmol/L) plus 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ for 48 hours. Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=6). Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference at level of p<0.05.

FIG. 22A shows adipose tissue TNFα expression ratio and FIG. 22B shows IL-6 expression ratio in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Data are normalized to 18s expression. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ, p<0.001.

FIG. 23A shows adipose tissue IL-15 expression, FIG. 23B shows Adipose adiponectin expression and FIG. 23C shows Muscle IL-15 expression in aP2-agouti transgenic mice. Data are normalized to 18s expression. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ, p<0.03.

FIG. 24A shows TNFα expression and FIG. 24B shows IL-6 expression in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treatment with 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃, 10 μmol/L nifepipine, and 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plus 10 μmol/L nifepipine respectively for 48 h. Data are normalized to 18s expression. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ, p<0.02. FIG. 24C illustrates plasma 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ in aP2-agouti transgenic mice fed low calcium (basal) or high calcium diets. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=10. Means with different letter differ, p=0.005.

FIG. 25A shows IL-6 expression, FIG. 25B shows IL-8 expression, FIG. 25C shows IL-15 expression and FIG. 25D shows adiponectin expression in differentiated Zen-bio human adipocytes. Adipocytes were treatment with 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃, 10 μmol/L nifepipine, and 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plus 10 μmol/L nifepipine respectively for 48 h. Data are normalized to 18s expression. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ, p<0.005.

FIG. 26A shows Adiponectin expression and FIG. 26B shows IL-15 expression in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocytes were treatment with 100 nmol/L H₂O₂, 1 μmol/L α±tocopherol, and 100 nmol/L H₂O₂, 1 μmol/L α±tocopherol respectively for 48 h. Data are normalized to 18s expression. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ, p<0.05. FIG. 26C: There was no direct effect of ROS on IL-15 expression; however, addition of α±tocopherol markedly increased IL-15 by 2.2-fold as compared to H₂O₂-treated cells (P=0.043).

FIG. 27 demonstrates that calcitriol increased MIF (FIG. 27A) and CD14 (FIG. 27B) expression in human adipocytes, and addition of a calcium channel antagonist (nifedipine) reversed this effect, indicating a role of intracellular calcium in mediating this effect.

FIG. 28 demonstrates that calcitriol increased MIF (FIG. 28A) and CD14 (FIG. 28B) expression in mouse (3T3-L1) adipocytes and the addition of a calcium channel antagonist (nifedipine) reversed this effect.

FIGS. 29, 30 and 31 show that calcitriol markedly stimulate inflammatory cytokines M-CSF (FIG. 29), MIP (FIG. 30) and IL-6 (FIG. 31) expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and co-culture with RAW 264 macrophages enhance this effect, indicating a potential role of adipocytes in regulation of local resident macrophages activity and that calcitriol regulates this effect via a calcium and mitochondrial uncoupling-dependent mechanism. Main effects of chemical treatment and culture status were significant (p<0.02).

FIGS. 32A-D illustrate the effect of calcitriol on mouse cytokine protein production. Calcitriol markedly increases production of several cytokines in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, as indicated in the schematic diagram.

FIGS. 33A-D demonstrate that the effect of calcitriol on mouse cytokine protein production in a co-culture system. Calcitriol markedly increased cytokine production in a 3T3-L1 adipocytes-RAW264 macrophage co-culture, as indicated in the schematic diagram.

FIG. 34: MCP-1 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

FIGS. 35-36: Calcitriol stimulates expression of TNFα and IL-6. Calcitriol stimulated TNFα expression by 91% (FIG. 35) and IL-6 by 796% (FIG. 36) in RAW 264 macrophages cultured alone. These effects were blocked by adding nifedipine or DNP. Co-culture of macrophages with differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes markedly augmented TNFα (FIG. 35) and IL-6 (FIG. 36) expression in macrophages, and these effects were further enhanced by calcitriol.

FIG. 37: The high calcium diet was without effect on body weight, but the milk diet did induce a significant decrease in total body weight.

FIG. 38: Both the calcium and the milk diets caused significant decreases in body fat, with the milk diet eliciting a significantly greater effect.

FIG. 39: The milk group had significantly greater skeletal muscle mass than the calcium group (p=0.02) and a tendency towards greater skeletal muscle mass than the basal group (p=0.06).

FIG. 40: Liver weight was slightly, but significantly, reduced by the milk diet.

FIG. 41: The high calcium diet caused a reduction in plasma 1 ,25-(OH)₂-D (calcitriol) (p=0.002), and there was a trend (p=0.059) towards a further decrease in plasma calcitriol on the high milk diet.

FIG. 42: Adipose tissue reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was significantly reduced by the high calcium diet (p=0.002) and further reduced by the milk diet (p=0.03).

FIG. 43: The high calcium diet caused a significant reduction in adipose tissue NADPH oxidase (Nox; one of the sources of intracellular ROS) expression (p=0.001) and there was a strong trend (p=0.056) towards a further suppression of NOX on the milk diet.

FIG. 44: Plasma MDA was significantly decreased by both the calcium and milk diets (p=0.001), with a significantly greater effect of the milk diet (p=0.039).

FIGS. 45-49: The high calcium diet resulted in suppression of inflammatory markers and an upregulation of anti-inflammatory markers, and the milk diet exerted a greater effect than the high calcium diet. Adipose tissue expression of TNF-α (FIG. 45), IL-6 (FIG. 46) and MCP (FIG. 47) were all significantly suppressed by the high calcium diet. Expression of each of these inflammatory cytokines was lower on the milk diet than on the high calcium diet, but this difference was only statistically evident as a trend for TNF-α (p=0.076). The calcium and milk diets caused significant reductions in the release of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, FIG. 48; IL6, FIG. 49) from adipose tissue. There was trend towards a greater effect of the milk vs. calcium diet, but this difference was not statistically significant.

FIGS. 50-51: The high calcium and milk diets increased adiponectin expression (p=0.001; FIG. 50) and IL-15 expression (p=0.001; FIG. 51), and there was a trend for a further increase on the milk diet vs. high calcium diet (p=0.073 for adiponectin; p=0.068 for IL-15).

FIG. 52: There was a marked increase in skeletal muscle IL-15 expression on the high calcium diet (p<0.001). Il-15 expression was further increased on the milk diet (p=0.07).

FIG. 53: Fatty acid oxidation was determined via palmitate oxidation. C2C12 myotubes were treated with or without leucine (2.5 mM), nifedipine (10 μ), adiponectin (70 ng/ml) and/or calcitriol (10 nM) for 48 hours. Data are corrected for DNA content. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ with p<0.05.

FIG. 54: C2C12 myotubes were treated with or without leucine (2.5 mM), nifedipine (10 μ), adiponectin (70 ng/ml) or/and calcitriol (10 nM) for 48 hours. IL-15 release in the medium was determined using ELISA. Data are corrected for DNA content. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ with p<0.05.

FIG. 55: C2C12 myotubes were treated with or without leucine (2.5 mM), nifedipine (10 μ), adiponectin(70 ng/ml) or/and calcitriol (10 nM) for 48 hours. IL-6 release in the medium was determined using ELISA. Data are corrected for DNA content. Values are presented as mean±SEM, n=6. Means with different letter differ with p<0.05.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The subject application provides a method of screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising: a) contacting one or more adipocyte cell(s) with a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium; b) measuring the intracellular concentrations of calcium in said adipocyte cell(s), wherein a decrease of intracellular calcium concentration in said adipocyte cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS. Cells suitable for these screening methods include 3T3-L1 adipocytes (ATCC, Manassas, Va.) and human adipocytes (Zen Bio, Inc., Research Triangle, N.C.). These cells can be maintained in culture as described in Example 2.

Another screening method provided by the subject application provides a method of identifying or screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising: a) administering a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to at least one subject with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium; b) measuring intracellular concentrations of calcium in cells of said at least one subject, wherein a decrease of intracellular calcium concentration in said cells of said at least one test subject as compared to the intracellular concentrations of calcium in the cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject. In some embodiments of the invention, intracellular concentrations of Ca²⁺ are measured in adipocyte cells (e.g., visceral adipocytes or cutaneous adipocytes). Other embodiments allow for the administration of a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to at least one test subject orally with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is not being administered to the subjects orally as a component of the diet of the subject.

As used herein, the term “subject” or “individual” includes mammals. Non-limiting examples of mammals include transgenic mice (such as aP2-agouti transgenic mice) or human test subjects. Other mammals include, and are not limited to, apes, chimpanzees, orangutans, monkeys; domesticated animals (pets) such as dogs, cats, guinea pigs, hamsters, mice, rats, rabbits, and ferrets; domesticated farm animals such as cows, buffalo, bison, horses, donkey, swine, sheep, and goats; or exotic animals typically found in zoos, such as bear, lions, tigers, panthers, elephants, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, giraffes, antelopes, sloth, gazelles, zebras, wildebeests, prairie dogs, koala bears, kangaroo, pandas, giant pandas, hyena, seals, sea lions, and elephant seals.

“Dietary material containing dietary calcium” is defined herein as any item normally consumed in the diet of a human or mammal. Non-limiting examples of such dietary materials are salmon, beans, tofu, spinach, turnip greens, kale, broccoli, waffles, pancakes, pizza, milk, yogurt, cheeses, cottage cheese, ice cream, frozen yogurt, calcium fortified nutrient supplements, calcium fortified vitamin supplements, or liquids supplemented with calcium. Specifically excluded from such a definition are those compositions that would be prescribed by a physician or veterinarian for the treatment of a disease or condition. Also specifically excluded from the definition of “dietary calcium” or “dietary material containing dietary calcium” are compounds found in compound libraries (such as chemical compound libraries or peptide libraries) and compositions comprising such compounds or peptides. Also excluded from the definition of “dietary material containing dietary calcium” is any source of calcium that does not form a part of the diet of a mammal or human. Pharmaceutical compositions prescribed by a physician or veterinarian that contain calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) via intravenous, intraarterial, oral, buccal, topical, transdermal, rectal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraosseous, transmucosal, or intraperitoneal routes of administration are not construed to a “dietary material containing dietary calcium” or as “dietary calcium”. One or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide.

The subject application also provides methods of treating diseases associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that decrease intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to decrease the intracellular concentrations of calcium in the cells of the individual with the proviso that the compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions is not dietary calcium or dietary material that contains calcium. In some embodiments, the methods of treating diseases associated with ROS also include a step that comprises the diagnosis or identification of an individual as having a disease or disorder associated with ROS or suffering from elevated ROS levels.

The subject application also provides methods of altering the expression of cytokines in an individual (or the cytokine profile of an individual) comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that decrease intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to decrease intracellular levels of calcium in the cells of the individual, decrease TNF-α, CD14, MIP, MIF, M-CSF, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6 expression (or any combination of the aforementioned cytokines) in the individual, and increase the expression of IL-15, adiponectin, or both IL-15 or adiponectin in the individual with the proviso that the compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions is not dietary calcium or dietary material that contains calcium.

Also provided are methods of increasing the in vitro expression of MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, and/or MIP-1α comprising contacting a composition comprising a carrier and calcitriol (1, 25-(OH)₂-D₃) with a culture of cells. The cells are cultured in the presences of this composition and MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, and/or MIP-α can be recovered for the cell culture according to methods known in the art. In some embodiments, the cells can be derived from adipose tissue (adipocytes); skeletal muscle cells (or commercially available skeletal cell lines); or human or murine adipocyte cell lines (e.g., 3T3-L1 cells). In some aspects of the invention, the culture of cells comprises a co-culture system that includes macrophage (e.g., see Example 4).

The subject invention also provides methods of increasing the production of IL-15 and/or adiponectin comprising contacting a composition comprising a carrier and calcium with a culture of cells. The cells are cultured in the presences of this composition and IL-15 and/or adiponectin can be recovered for the cell culture according to methods known in the art. In some embodiments, the cells can be cells derived from adipose tissue (adipocytes); skeletal muscle cells (or commercially available skeletal cell lines); or human or murine adipocyte cell lines (e.g., 3T3-L1 cells).

ROS associated diseases include, and are not limited to, cataracts, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, inflammation, cancer, male infertility, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis and aging. Thus, the subject application provides methods of treating cataracts, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, cancer, male infertility, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis and aging that comprises the administration of compounds, compositions, combinations of compounds or combinations of compositions in amounts sufficient to decrease the intracellular levels of calcium in an individual.

The subject application also provides methods of treating cancer-associated ROS disease comprising the administration of a composition comprising an appropriate therapeutic agent and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) in an amount sufficient to reduce the production of ROS. In the context of this aspect of the invention, the phrase “appropriate therapeutic agent” includes, and is not limited to, alkylating agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide), antibiotics which affect nucleic acids (e.g., doxorubicin, bleomycin), platinum compounds (e.g., cisplatin), mitotic inhibitors (e.g., vincristine), antimetabolites (e.g., 5-fluorouracil), camptothecin derivatives (e.g., topotecan), biological response modifiers (e.g., interferon or monoclonal antibodies), and hormone therapies (e.g., tamoxifen). Additional non-limiting examples of “appropriate therapeutic agents” are identified in Table 1 of this application as are the indications (types of cancer) that can be treated with a particular therapeutic agent.

The terms “administer”, “administered”, “administers” and “administering” are defined as the providing a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to a subject via intravenous, intraarterial, oral, buccal, topical, transdermal, rectal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraosseous, transmucosal, or intraperitoneal routes of administration. In certain embodiments of the subject application, oral routes of administering a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to a subject are specifically excluded.

The term “physiologically acceptable salts” of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide. In certain aspect of the invention, amounts of calcium that are administered in combination with appropriate therapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer provide at least 400 to 2000 mg, 900 to 1500 mg, 1000 to 1400, 1100 to 1300 mg, or 1200 to 1300 mg of calcium per day. Alternatively, X.YZ mg (or about X.YZ mg or at least X.YZ mg) of calcium per day are provided to the subject wherein X is any integer selected from 400 to 2000, Y is an integer selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, and Z is an integer selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9.

As set forth herein, the subject application also provides the following non-limiting aspects of the invention:

A) An in vitro method of screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising:

a) contacting one or more cell(s) with a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is not dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium; and

b) measuring one or more of the following parameters:

-   -   i) intracellular concentrations of calcium in said one or more         cell(s), wherein a decrease of intracellular calcium         concentration in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or         composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS;     -   ii) UCP2 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an         increase in UCP2 expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a         compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the         production of ROS;     -   iii) NADPH oxidase expression in said one or more cell(s),         wherein a decrease in NADPH oxidase expression in said cell(s)         is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in         reducing the production of ROS;     -   iv) UCP3 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an         increase in UCP3 expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a         compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the         production of ROS;     -   v) NADPH oxidase expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein         a decrease in NADPH oxidase expression in said cell(s) is         indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in         reducing the production of ROS;     -   vi) 11β-HSD expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a         decrease in the expression of 11β-HSD in said cell(s) is         indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in         reducing the production of ROS;     -   vii) TNF-α, CD14, MIF, M-CSF, MIP, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6         expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in         the expression of TNF-α, CD14, MIF (macrophage inhibitory         factor), MIP (macrophage inhibitory protein), M-CSF (macrophage         colony stimulating factor), G-CSF (granulocyte colony         stimulating factor) or IL-6 in said cell(s) is indicative of a         compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the         production of ROS; or     -   viii) IL-15 or adiponectin expression in said one or more         cell(s), wherein an increase in the expression of IL-15 or         adiponectin in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or         composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS;

B) The embodiment as set forth in A, wherein said one or more cell(s) is a adipocyte or an adipocyte cell line;

C) An embodiment as set forth in A or B, wherein the one or more cell(s) is a/are human adipocyte(s) or a murine adipocyte;

D) An embodiment as set forth in A, B or C, wherein the one or more cell(s) are an adipocyte cell line;

E) An embodiment as set forth in A, B, C or D, wherein the one or more cell(s) are a human adipocyte cell line;

F) An embodiment as set forth in A, B, C or D, wherein the one or more cell(s) are a murine adipocyte cell line;

G) An embodiment as set forth in A, B or C, wherein the one or more cell(s) are a murine or human adipocyte;

H) An embodiment as set forth in G, wherein the murine or human adipocytes are obtained from visceral, or subcutaneous, or both visceral and subcutaneous fat tissue;

I) An embodiment as set forth in A, B, C, D, E, F, G, or H, wherein the cell(s) are obtained from a transgenic mouse;

J) An embodiment as set forth in I, wherein the transgenic mouse is an aP2-agouti transgenic mouse;

K) An embodiment as set forth in A, B, C, D, E, F or G, wherein the cell(s) 3T3-L1 adipocytes;

L) A method of identifying or screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising:

a) administering a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to at least one test subject with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions, if administered orally to said test subject, is not being administered to said at least one test subject orally as a component of the diet of said at least one test subject or as dietary calcium to said test subject (i.e., (said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions, if administered orally to said test subject, is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium); and

b) measuring one or more of the following parameters:

-   -   i) intracellular calcium concentrations in cells of said at         least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein         a decrease of intracellular calcium concentration in the cells         of a test subject as compared to the intracellular         concentrations of calcium in the cells of at least one control         subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of         compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in         reducing the production of ROS in a subject;     -   ii) UCP2 expression in cells of said at least one test subject         and at least one control subject, wherein an increase of UCP2         expression in the cells of a test subject as compared to the         UCP2 expression in the cells of at least one control subject is         indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds         or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the         production of ROS in a subject;     -   iii) NADPH oxidase expression in cells of said at least one test         subject and at least one control subject, wherein a decrease of         NADPH oxidase expression in the cells of a test subject as         compared to the NADPH oxidase expression in the cells of at         least one control subject is indicative of a compound,         composition, combination of compounds or combination of         compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS         in a subject;     -   iv) UCP3 expression in skeletal muscle cells of said at least         one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein an         increase in UCP3 expression in the skeletal muscle cells of a         test subject as compared to UCP3 expression in the skeletal         muscle cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a         compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination         of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of         ROS in a subject;     -   v) NADPH oxidase expression in skeletal muscle cells of said at         least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein         a decrease of NADPH oxidase expression in the skeletal muscle         cells of a test subject as compared to the NADPH oxidase         expression in the skeletal muscle cells of at least one control         subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of         compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in         reducing the production of ROS in a subject;     -   vi) 11β-HSD expression in visceral adipocyte tissue or cells of         said at least one test subject and at least one control subject,         wherein a decrease of 11β-HSD expression in the visceral         adipocyte tissue or cells of a test subject as compared to the         11β-HSD expression in the visceral adipocyte tissue or cells of         at least one control subject is indicative of a compound,         composition, combination of compounds or combination of         compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS         in a subject;     -   vii) TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6         expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in         the expression of TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, G-CSF or IL-6 in         said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable         for use in reducing the production of ROS; or     -   viii) IL-15 or adiponectin expression in said one or more         cell(s), wherein an increase in the expression of IL-15 or         adiponectin in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or         composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS;

M) An embodiment as set forth in L(b)(i)-(iii), (vii), or (viii), wherein the cells are adipocyte cells obtained from at least one test subject and at least one control subject;

N) An embodiment as set forth in M, wherein the cells are cutaneous adipocyte cells obtained from at least one test subject and at least one control subject;

O) An embodiment as set forth in M, wherein the intracellular concentration of calcium is measured in visceral adipocyte cells obtained from at least one test subject and at least one control subject;

P) An embodiment as set forth in M, wherein the intracellular concentration of calcium is measured in cutaneous, or visceral, or both cutaneous and visceral adipocyte cells obtained from at least one test subject and at least one control subject;

Q) An embodiment as set forth in L, M, N, O or P, wherein the test subject and control subject are human;

R) An embodiment as set forth in L, M, N, O or P, wherein the test subject and control subject are murine;

S) An embodiment as set forth in R, wherein the test subject and control subject are transgenic mice;

T) An embodiment as set forth in S, wherein the test subject and control subject are aP2-agouti transgenic mice;

U) An embodiment as set forth in L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S or T, wherein: 1) a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is administered to a subject via intravenous, intraarterial, oral, buccal, topical, transdermal, rectal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraosseous, transmucosal, or intraperitoneal routes of administration or wherein said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition or combination of candidate compositions is administered to at least one test subject orally with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is not being administered to at least one test subject orally as a component of the diet of said test subject; or 2) wherein said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is administered to at least one test subject orally as a. component of the subject's diet (i.e., as dietary calcium);

V) An embodiment as set forth in L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S or T, wherein a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is administered to a subject parenterally (e.g., via intravenous, intraarterial, buccal, topical, transdermal, rectal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraosseous, transmucosal, or intraperitoneal routes of administration);

W) A method of treating diseases associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that decrease intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to decrease the intracellular concentrations of calcium in the cells of the individual with the proviso that the compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions is not dietary calcium or dietary material that contains calcium;

X) An embodiment as set forth in W, wherein the method includes a step that comprises the diagnosis or identification of an individual as having a disease or disorder associated with ROS or diagnosing or identifying an individual having elevated ROS levels (e.g., measuring the levels of ROS and comparing the measured levels against a standard or collection of control subjects);

Y) An embodiment as set forth in W or X, wherein the ROS associated diseases include, and are not limited to, cataracts, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, cancer, male infertility, inflammation, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis and aging;

Z) A method of treating cancer-associated ROS disease or disorders comprising the administration of one or more composition comprising an appropriate therapeutic agent and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) in an amount sufficient to reduce the production of ROS;

AA) An embodiment as set forth in Z, wherein the “appropriate therapeutic agent” includes, and is not limited to, alkylating agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide), antibiotics which affect nucleic acids (e.g., doxorubicin, bleomycin), platinum compounds (e.g., cisplatin), mitotic inhibitors (e.g., vincristine), antimetabolites (e.g., 5-fluorouracil), camptothecin derivatives (e.g., topotecan), biological response modifiers (e.g., interferon or this application;

BB) An embodiment as set forth in Z or AA, wherein the type of cancer to be treated is identified as an indication in Table 1;

CC) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA or BB, wherein one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium is administered in the composition;

DD) An embodiment as set forth in CC, wherein the one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide;

EE) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC or DD wherein a dosage of 400 to 2000 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

FF) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC or DD wherein a dosage of X.YZ mg of calcium is administered to a subject per day, wherein X is any integer from 400 to 2000, Y is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, and Z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9;

GG) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD or EE wherein a dosage of 900 to 1500 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

HH) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD or EE wherein a dosage of 1000 to 1400 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

II) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD or EE wherein a dosage of 1100 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

JJ) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD or EE wherein a dosage of 1200 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

KK) An embodiment as set forth in W, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD, EE, FF, GG, HH, II or JJ, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) are administered as a single composition;

LL) An embodiment as set forth in Z, AA, BB, CC, DD, EE, FF, GG, HH, II or JJ, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) are administered as separate or different compositions;

MM) An embodiment as set forth in X, Y or LL, wherein the separate or different compositions are administered simultaneously, sequentially or contemporaneously;

NN) An embodiment as set forth in KK, LL or MM, wherein the compositions are administered at multiple times during the day;

OO) An embodiment as set forth in X, Y, Z or KK, wherein the composition is administered once per day;

PP) An embodiment as set forth in W, X, Y, Z, AA, BB, CC, DD, EE, FF, GG, HH, II, JJ, KK, LL, MM, NN or OO, wherein said administration is parenteral;

QQ) A method of reducing ROS production in a diabetic individual comprising the administration of one or more composition comprising an appropriate therapeutic agent and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) in an amount sufficient to reduce the production of ROS;

RR) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, wherein one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium are present in at least one of said one or more composition;

SS) An embodiment as set forth in RR, wherein the one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide;

TT) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, or SS wherein a dosage of 400 to 2000 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

UU) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, or TT wherein a dosage of X.YZ mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day, wherein X is any integer from 400 to 2000, Y is O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, and Z is O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9;

VV) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT or UU wherein a dosage of 900 to 1500 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

WW) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU or VV wherein a dosage of 1000 to 1400 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

XX) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV or WW wherein a dosage of 1100 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

YY) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW or XX wherein a dosage of 1200 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

ZZ) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX or YY, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) are administered as a single composition;

AAA) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX or YY, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) are administered as separate or different compositions;

BBB) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY or AAA, wherein the separate or different compositions are administered simultaneously, sequentially or contemporaneously;

CCC) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY, ZZ, AAA or BBB, wherein the compositions are administered at multiple times during the day;

DDD) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY, ZZ, AAA, or BBB, wherein the composition is administered once per day;

EEE) An embodiment as set forth in QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY, ZZ, AAA, BBB, CCC, or DDD, wherein said administration is parenteral;

FFF) An embodiment as set forth in any of QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY, ZZ, AAA, BBB, CCC, or DDD, wherein said appropriate therapeutic agent is selected from those set forth in Table 3 or any combination of the therapeutic agents set forth therein;

GGG) An embodiment as set forth in EEE, wherein said appropriate therapeutic agent is selected from those set forth in Table 2 or any combination of the therapeutic agents set forth therein;

HHH) An embodiment as set forth in any of QQ, RR, SS, TT, UU, VV, WW, XX, YY, ZZ, AAA, BBB, CCC, DDD, EEE, FFF, or GGG, wherein said diabetic individual has a Type II diabetes (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus [NIDDM]);

III) A composition comprising one or more therapeutic agent selected from Tables 2 or 3 in combination with calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium;

JJJ) An embodiment as set forth in III, wherein said composition contains between 1 and 2000 mg of calcium or one or more physiologically acceptable salts thereof;

KKK) An embodiment as set forth in III or JJJ, wherein said composition contains X.YZ mg of calcium or physiological salts of calcium, wherein X is any integer between 1 to 2000 (inclusive of 1 and 2000), Y is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, and Z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9;

LLL) An embodiment as set forth in III, JJJ, or KKK, wherein said composition contains between 900 and 1500 mg of calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium;

MMM) An embodiment as set forth in III, JJJ, KKK, or LLL, wherein said composition contains between 1000 and 1400 mg of calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium;

NNN) An embodiment as set forth in III, JJJ, KKK, LLL, or MMM, wherein said composition contains between 1100 and 1300 mg of calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium;

OOO) An embodiment as set forth in III, JJJ, KKK, LLL, MMM or NNN, wherein said composition contains between 1200 and 1300 mg of calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium;

PPP) An embodiment as set forth in III, JJJ, KKK, LLL, MMM, NNN or OOO, wherein said one or more physiological salts of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide;

QQQ) A method of altering the expression of cytokines in an individual (or the cytokine profile of an individual) comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that decrease intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to decrease intracellular levels of calcium in the cells of the individual, decrease TNF-α, CD14, MIP, MIF, M-CSF, G-CSF or IL-6 expression (or any combination of the aforementioned cytokines) in the individual, and increase the expression of IL-15, adiponectin, or both IL-15 or adiponectin in the individual with the proviso that the compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions is not dietary calcium or dietary material that contains calcium;

RRR) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, wherein one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium are present in at least one of said one or more composition;

SSS) An embodiment as set forth in RRR, wherein the one or more physiologically acceptable salt(s) of calcium include, and are not limited to, calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide;

TTT) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, or SSS wherein a dosage of 400 to 2000 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

UUU) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, or TTT wherein a dosage of X.YZ mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day, wherein X is any integer from 400 to 2000, Y is O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, and Z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9;

VVV) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT or UUU wherein a dosage of 900 to 1500 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

WWW) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU or VVV wherein a dosage of 1000 to 1400 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

XXX) An embodiment as set forth in QQ QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV or WWW wherein a dosage of 1100 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

YYY) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW or XXX wherein a dosage of 1200 to 1300 mg of calcium are administered to a subject per day;

ZZZ) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX or YYY, wherein the calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) is administered in a single composition;

AAAA) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX or YYY, the calcium (or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium) is administered as separate or different compositions;

BBBB) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX, YYY or AAAA, wherein the separate or different compositions are administered simultaneously, sequentially or contemporaneously;

CCCC) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX, YYY, AAAA or BBBB, wherein the compositions are administered at multiple times during the day;

DDDD) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX, YYY, AAAA or BBBB, wherein the composition is administered once per day; or

EEEE) An embodiment as set forth in QQQ, RRR, SSS, TTT, UUU, VVV, WWW, XXX, YYY, AAAA, BBBB, CCCC, or DDDD, wherein said administration is parenteral.

Levels of NADPH oxidase, UCP2, UCP3, cyclin A, 11β-HSD, TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, G-CSF, IL-6, IL-15, adiponectin and/or intracellular levels of calcium can be measured according to methods well-known in the art or as set forth in the following examples. By way of non-limiting examples, relative levels of expressions of NADPH oxidase, UCP2, UCP3, cyclin A, 11β-HSD, TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, G-CSF, IL-6, IL-15, and/or adiponectin can be determined by: 1) nuclear run-on assay, 2) slot blot assay, 3) Northern blot assay (Alwine et al., 1977), 4) magnetic particle separation, 5) nucleic acid or DNA chips, 6) reverse Northern blot assay, 7) dot blot assay, 8) in situ hybridization, 9) RNase protection assay (Melton et al., 1984, and as described in the 1998 catalog of Ambion, Inc., Austin, Tex.), 10) ligase chain reaction, 11) polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 12) reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR (Berchtold et al., 1989), 13) differential display RT-PCR (DDRT-PCR) or other suitable combinations of techniques and assays. Labels suitable for use in these detection methodologies include, and are not limited to 1) radioactive labels, 2) enzyme labels, 3) chemiluminescent labels, 4) fluorescent labels, 5) magnetic labels, or other suitable labels, including those set forth below. These methodologies and labels are well known in the art and widely available to the skilled artisan. Likewise, methods of incorporating labels into the nucleic acids are also well known to the skilled artisan.

Alternatively, the expression of NADPH oxidase, UCP2, UCP3, cyclin A, 11β-HSD, TNF-α, CD 14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, G-CSF, IL-6, IL-15, and/or adiponectin can be measured at the polypeptide level by using labeled antibodies that specifically bind to the polypeptides in immunoassays such as commercially available protein arrays/assays, ELISA assays, RIA assays, Western blots or immunohistochemical assays. Reagents for such detection and/or quantification assays can be obtained from commercial sources or made by the skilled artisan according to methods well known in the art.

EXAMPLE 1 In Vivo Studies

Animals and Diets:

A. Animal Pilot Study

Six-week old male aP2-agouti transgenic mice and wild-type male littermates (n=12/group) from our colony were utilized. Six mice randomly selected from each group were sacrificed to provide baseline data and the remaining 6 mice in each group were put on a modified AIN 93 G diet (Reeves 1997) with sucrose as the sole carbohydrate source and providing 64% of energy, and fat increased to 25% of energy with lard as previously described (Zemel et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2004). Mice were studied for 9 days, during which food intake and spillage were measured daily and body weight, fasting blood glucose, food consumption assessed weekly. At the conclusion of the study, all mice were killed under isofluorane anesthesia and fat pads were immediately excised, weighed and used for further study, as described below.

B. Diet Study

At 6 wk of age, 20 male aP2-agouti transgenic mice from our colony were randomly divided into two groups (10 mice/group) and fed a modified AIN 93 G diet with suboptimal calcium (calcium carbonate, 0.4%) or high calcium (calcium carbonate, 1.2%) respectively, with sucrose as the sole carbohydrate source and providing 64% of energy, and fat increased to 25% of energy with lard. Mice were studied for three weeks, during which food intake and spillage were measured daily and body weight, fasting blood glucose, food consumption assessed weekly. At the conclusion of the study, all mice were killed under isofluorane anesthesia and blood collected via cardiac puncture; fat pads and soleus muscle were immediately excised, weighed and used for further study, as described below.

This study was approved from an ethical standpoint by the Institutional Care and Use Committee of The University of Tennessee.

Measurement of Adipocyte Intracellular Ca²⁺([Ca²⁺]i)

Adipose tissue was first washed several times with Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS), minced into small pieces, and digested with 0.8 mg/ml type I collagenase in a shaking water bath at 37° C. for 30 min. Adipocytes were then filtered through sterile 500-μm nylon mesh and cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 1% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Cells were cultured in suspension and maintained in a thin layer at the top of culture media for 2 h for cell recovery. [Ca²⁺]i in isolated mouse adipocytes was measured by using a fura-2 dual wavelength fluorescence imaging system. Prior to [Ca²⁺]i measurement, adipocytes were pre-incubated in serum-free medium for 2 h and rinsed with HBSS containing the following components (in mmol/L): NaCl 138, CaCl₂ 1.8, MgSO₄ 0.8, NaH₂PO₄ 0.9, NaHCO₃ 4, glucose 5, glutamine 6, Hepes 20, and bovin serum albumin 1%. Adipocytes were loaded with fura-2 acetoxymethyl ester (fura-2 AM) (10 μmol/L) in the same buffer in dark for 1 h at 37° C. Adipocytes were rinsed with HBSS three times to remove extracellular dye and then post-incubated at room temperature for an additional 30 min to permit complete hydrolysis of cytoplasmic fura-2 AM. A thin layer of adipocytes was plated in 35 mm dishes with glass cover slips (P35G-0-14-C, MatTek Corporation, Ashland, Mass.). The dishes with dye-loaded cells were mounted on the stage of Nikon TMS-F fluorescence inverted microscope with a Cohu 4915 CCD camera. Fluorescent images were captured alternatively at excitation wavelength of 340 nm and 380 nm with an emission wavelength of 520 nm. [Ca²⁺]i was calculated by using a ratio equation as described previously (Zemel, 2003).

Total RNA Extraction.

A total cellular RNA isolation kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.) was used to extract total RNA from cells according to manufacturer's instruction.

Quantitative Real Time PCR

Adipocyte 18s, UCP2, NADPH oxidase and 11β-HSD, and muscle UCP3 and NADPH oxidase were quantitatively measured using a Smart Cycler Real Time PCR System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) with a TaqMan 1000 Core Reagent Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The primers and probe sets were obtained from Applied Biosystems TaqMan® Assays-on-Demand™ Gene Expression primers and probe set collection according to manufacture's instruction. Pooled adipocyte total RNA was serial-diluted in the range of 1.5625-25 ng and used to establish a standard curve; total RNAs for unknown samples were also diluted in this range. Reactions of quantitative RT-PCR for standards and unknown samples were also performed according to the instructions of Smart Cycler System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) and TaqMan Real Time PCR Core Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The mRNA quantitation for each sample was further normalized using the corresponding 18s quantitation (Sun et al., 2004c).

Determination of Intracellular ROS Generation

Adipose tissue digestion and adipocytes preparation were prepared as described in [Ca²⁺]i measurement. Intracellular ROS generation was assessed using 6-carboxy-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2-DCFDA) as described previously (Manea et al., 2004). Cells were loaded with H2-DCFDA (2 μmol/L) 30 min before the end of the incubation period (48 h). After washing twice with PBS, cells were scraped and disrupted by sonication on ice (20 s). Fluorescence (emission 543 nm or 527 nm) and DNA content were then measured as described previously. The intensity of fluorescence was expressed as arbitary units per ng DNA.

Statistical Analysis.

Data were evaluated for statistical significance by analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significantly different group means were then separated by the least significant difference test by using SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill.). All data presented are expressed as mean±SEM.

Results

Our previous work indicated that aP2-agouti transgenic mice are a useful model for diet-induced obesity in a genetically susceptible human population, as they are non-obese on standard diets but develop mild to moderate obesity, hyperglycemia and insulin resistance when fed high sucrose and/or high fat diets (Zemel et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2004). Given the role of obesity and diabetes in oxidative stress, we first investigated whether aP2-agouti transgenic mice are also a suitable model for the study of diet-induced oxidative stress. Transgenic mice exhibited significantly greater baseline ROS production compared with wild-type controls prior to the feeding period, and the consumption of the obesity-promoting diet significantly increased adipose tissue ROS production only in aP2-agouti transgenic mice (FIG. 1). This effect was also associated with increased NADPH oxidase expression in adipose tissue of aP2-agouti transgenic mice prior to and following consumption of the obesity-promoting diet (FIG. 2).

Based on the suitability of this model, we utilized aP2 transgenic mice as the animal to investigate the effect of dietary calcium in regulation of diet-induced oxidative stress in a three-week obesity induction period on high sucrose/high fat diets with either low calcium (0.4% from CaCO₃)(basal diet) or high calcium (1.2% from CaCO₃)(high calcium diet) content. Although feeding high fat/high sucrose diets ad libitum for 3 weeks induced weight and fat gain in all animals, mice on the high calcium diet gained only 50% of the body weight (p=0.04) and fat (p<0.001) as mice on the basal diet (FIG. 3). The high calcium diet also suppressed diet-induced hyperglycemic and reduced fasting blood glucose by 15% compared to mice on basal diet (p=0.003) (FIG. 4). The high calcium diet significantly reduced adipose intracellular ROS production by 64% and 18% (p<0.001) in visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue respectively (FIG. 5). Consistent with this, the high calcium diet also inhibited adipose tissue NADPH oxidase expression, by 49% (p=0.012) in visceral adipose tissue and by 63% (p=0.05) in subcutaneous adipose tissue, respectively, compared to mice on the basal diet (FIG. 6), indicating that dietary calcium may inhibit oxidative stress by suppressing cytosolic enzymatic ROS production. Moreover, adipocyte intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i) levels, which were previously demonstrated to favor adipocyte ROS production, were markedly suppressed in mice on the high calcium diet by 73%-80% (p<0.001) versus mice on the basal diet (FIG. 7), suggesting a role of [Ca²⁺]i in regulation of oxidative stress by dietary calcium. Consistent with our previous study, the high calcium diet also induced 367% and 191% increases in adipose UCP2 expression (p<0.001) in visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue respectively, compared to mice on the basal diet (FIG. 8). Moreover, the pattern of UCP3 expression and indices of ROS production in skeletal muscle was consistent with these findings. UCP3 expression was 22% higher (p=0.006) (FIG. 9) and NADPH oxidase expression was 36% lower (p=0.001) (FIG. 10) in soleus muscle of mice on the high calcium diet compared to mice on the low calcium diet, suggesting that increases in UCP2 and UCP3 expression in adipose tissue and muscle, respectively, of animals on high calcium diets may contribute to reduced ROS levels.

We have recently shown that 1α, 25(OH)₂D₃ promotes cortisol production by stimulating 11β-HSD expression in cultured human adipocytes (Morris et al., 2005). However, the effect of modulation of 1α, 25(OH)₂D₃ via dietary calcium on this gene expression in vivo had not been investigated. Data from the present study demonstrates that the high calcium diet suppressed 11β-HSD expression in visceral adipose tissue by 39% (p=0.034) compared to mice on the basal diet (FIG. 11). Interestingly, 11β-HSD expression in visceral fat was markedly higher than subcutaneous fat in mice on basal low calcium group (p=0.034) whereas no difference was observed between the fat depots in mice on the high calcium diet.

Discussion

Previous data from our laboratory demonstrate that dietary calcium exerts an anti-obesity effect via a 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃-mediated mechanism (Zemel, 2005a). We have reported that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plays a direct role in the modulation adipocyte Ca²⁺ signaling, resulting in an increased lipogenesis and decreased lipolysis (Xue et aL, 1998; Xue et al., 2000). In addition, 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ also plays a role in regulating human adipocyte UCP2 expression, suggesting that the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ and the resulting up-regulation of UCP2 may contribute to increased rates of energy utilization (Shi et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2002). Accordingly, the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ by increasing dietary calcium attenuates adipocyte triglyceride accumulation and caused a net reduction in fat mass in both mice and humans in the absence of caloric restriction (Zemel et al., 2000), a marked augmentation of body weight and fat loss during energy restriction in both mice and humans (Zemel et al., 2000; Zemel, 2004), and a reduction in the rate of weight and fat regain following energy restriction in mice (Sun et al., 2004a). Given that obesity and related disorders are associated with increased oxidative stress, dietary calcium may play a role in modulating diet-induced oxidative stress. Data from the present study demonstrate that dietary calcium decreased diet-induced ROS production. Our previous data demonstrate that 1α, 25(OH)₂D₃ stimulates Ca²⁺ signaling and suppresses UCP2 expression on human and murine adipocytes (Shi et al., 2002;

Sun et al., 2004) and suppresses UCP3 expression in skeletal muscle (Sun et al., 2004); accordingly, dietary calcium suppression of ROS production is likely due to suppression of circulating 1α, 25(OH)₂D₃ levels and resultant reductions in Ca²⁺ signaling and increases in UCP2 and UCP3 expression. Furthermore, dietary calcium also appeared to regulate cytosol enzymatic ROS production by inhibiting NADPH oxidase expression, which also contributes to cellular ROS production.

The interaction between ROS and calcium have been intensively investigated (Toescu 2004; Ermak et aL, 2002; Miwa et al., 2003; Brookes 2005). Calcium signaling is essential for production of ROS, and elevated intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]i) activates ROS-generating enzymes, such as NADPH-oxidase and myeloperoxidase, as well as the formation of free radicals by the mitochondrial respiratory chain (Gordeeva et al., 2003). Interestingly, increased ROS production also stimulates [Ca²⁺]i by activating calcium channels on both the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Volk et al., 1997). Thus, there is a bi-directional interaction wherein ROS cellular calcium homeostasis and calcium-dependent physiological processes while manipulation of calcium signaling may also regulate cellular ROS production. Consistent with this concept, the present data show that suppression [Ca²⁺]i by high dietary calcium was associated with amelioration of ROS production in adipose tissue.

Respiration is associated with production of ROS, and mitochondria produce a large fraction of the total ROS made in cells (Brand et al., 2004). Mild uncoupling of respiration diminishes mitochondrial ROS formation by dissipating mitochondrial proton gradient and potential (Miwa et al., 2003). Korshunov et al. has demonstrated that slight increase of the H⁺ backflux (to the matrix), which diminishes Δψ, results in a substantial decrease in mitochondrial ROS formation (Korshunov et al., 1997). Accordingly, the H⁺ backflow induced by uncoupling via UCPs would be expected to down-regulate ROS production. Mild activation of UCPs may therefore play a role in the antioxidant defense system and it is reasonable to propose that dietary calcium induced suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃, which has been demonstrated to inhibit UCP2 expression (Shi et al., 2002), may inhibit ROS production. Indeed, in the present study, we have shown that high dietary calcium up-regulated both UCP2 expression in adipose tissue and UCP3 expression in skeletal muscle, and these findings were associated decreased ROS production, indicating a role of mitochondrial uncoupling in regulation of oxidative stress.

We also compared the ROS production between subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue. Consistent with our previous data (Zemel, 2005a; Zemel et al., 2005a), animals on the basal low calcium diet showed markedly higher visceral fat gain than subcutaneous fat versus mice on the high calcium diet (data not shown) and exhibited strikingly enhanced ROS production and NADPH oxidase expression in visceral fat versus subcutaneous fat. Conversely, high dietary calcium ameliorated visceral fat gain and mice on the high calcium diet showed no significantly greater ROS production in visceral fat versus subcutaneous fat. These results therefore indicated that higher visceral fat predisposes to enhanced ROS production. Accordingly, we further evaluated the involvement of glucocorticoid by measuring 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) expression, the key enzyme responsible for converting glucocorticoid into its active form (Agarwal 2003). We demonstrated that 11β-HSD expression in visceral fat was markedly higher than subcutaneous fat in mice on basal low calcium group whereas no difference was observed between the fat depots in mice on the high calcium diet. We also found the high calcium diet suppressed 11β-HSD expression in visceral adipose tissue compared to mice on the low calcium diet. These findings demonstrated that dietary calcium exerts greater effect on inhibition of visceral fat gain via suppressing formation of active glucocoticoid and thus explained the markedly decreased visceral fat gain in mice on the high calcium diet than mice on the low calcium diet. Therefore, the enhanced ROS production observed in visceral fat compare to subcutaneous fat in response to the high fat/high sucrose diet only in mice on low calcium diet suggested that suppression of ROS production by dietary calcium may be mediated, at least in part, by the regulation of glucocorticoid associated fat distribution. We recently reported in vitro observation that 1α, 25 (OH)₂ D₃ directly regulates adipocyte 11β-HSD 1 expression and local cortisol levels in cultured human adipocytes (Morris et al., 2005), and data from this study provides the first in vivo evidence that dietary calcium may contribute to the preferential loss of visceral adiposity and obesity associated oxidative stress by regulating adipose tissue 11β-HSD expression and glucocorticoid production.

In conclusion, these data support a role for dietary calcium in the regulation of diet- and obesity-induced oxidative stress. Potential mechanisms include increases in UCP2 and UCP3 expression, suppression of [Ca²⁺]i, and/or inhibition of NADPH oxidase and 11β-HSD gene expression. These data also support our previous observation that dietary calcium inhibits obesity, with partially selective effects on visceral adipose tissue, and leads to significant changes in adipose tissue metabolism, including accelerated adipose tissue deposition and reduced ROS production.

EXAMPLE 2 1,25-Dihyrdoxyvitamin D Modulation of Reactive Oxigen Species Production and Cell Proliferation in Human and Murine Adipocytes

3T3-L1 preadipocytes were incubated at a density of 8000 cells/cm² (10 cm² dish) and grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) containing 10% FBS and antibiotics (adipocyte medium) at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ in air. Confluent preadipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 1% FBS, 1 μM dexamethasone, IBMX (0.5 mM) and antibiotics (1% Penicillin-Streptomycin). Preadipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium. Cultures were re-fed every 2-3 days to allow 90% of cells to reach full differentiation before conducting chemical treatment. Chemicals were freshly diluted in adipocyte medium before treatment. Cells were washed with fresh adipocyte medium, re-fed with medium containing the different treatments, and incubated at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ in air before analysis. Cell viability was measured via trypan blue exclusion.

Human preadipocytes used in this study were supplied by Zen-Bio (Research Triangle, N.C.). Preadipocytes were inoculated in DMEM/Ham's F-10 medium (DMEM-F10) (1:1, vol/vol) containing 10% FBS, 15 mmol/L HEPES, and antibiotics at a density of 30,000 cells/cm². Confluent monolayers of preadipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 15 mmol/L HEPES, 3% FBS, 33 μmol/L biotin, 17 μmol/L pantothenate, 100 nmol/L insulin, 0.25 μmol/L methylisobutylxanthine (MIX), 1 μmol/L dexamethasone, 1 μmol/L BRL49653, and antibiotics. Preadipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium in which BRL49653 and MIX were omitted. Cultures were refed every 2-3 days.

UCP2 Transfection

UCP2 full-length cDNAs was amplified by RT-PCR using mRNAs isolated from mouse white adipose tissues. The PCR primers for this amplification are shown as follows: UCP2 forward, 5′-GCTAGCATGGTTGGTTTCAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 1), reverse, 5′-GCTAGCTCAGAAAGGTGAATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2). The PCR products were then subcloned into pcDNA4/His expression vectors. The linearized constructs were transfected into 3T3-L1 preadipocytes using lipofectamine plus standard protocol (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). After 48 hrs of transfection, cells were split and cultured in selective medium containing 400 μg/ml zeocin for the selection of resistant colonies. Cells were fed with selective medium every 3 days until resistant colonies could be identified. These resistant foci were picked, expanded, tested for expression, and frozen for future experiments.

Determination of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential

Mitochondrial membrane potential was analyzed fluorometrically with a lipophilic cationic dye JC-1 (5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethylbenzimidazol carbocyanine iodide) using a mitochondrial potential detection kit (Biocarta, San Diego, Calif.). Mitochondrial potential was determined as the ratio of red fluorescence (excitation 550 nm, emission 600 nm) and green fluorescence (excitation 485 nm, emission 535 nm) using a fluorescence microplate reader.

Measurement of Intracellular Ca²⁺([Ca²⁺]i)

[Ca²⁺]i in adipocytes was measured using a fura-2 dual-wavelength fluorescence imaging system. Cells were plated in 35-mm dishes (P35G-0-14-C, MatTek). Prior to [Ca²⁺]i measurement, cells were put in serum-free medium overnight and rinsed with HEPES balanced salt solution (HBSS) containing the following components (in mmol/L): 138 NaCl, 1.8 CaCl₂, 0.8 MgSO₄, 0.9 NaH₂PO₄, 4 NaHCO₃, 5 glucose, 6 glutamine, 20 HEPES, and 1% and 1% bovine serum albumin. Cells were loaded with fura-2 acetoxymethyl ester (fura-2 AM) (10 μmol/L) in the same buffer for 2 h at 37° C. in a dark incubator with 5% CO₂. To remove extracellular dye, cells were rinsed with HBSS three times and then post-incubated at room temperature for an additional 1 h for complete hydrolysis of cytoplasmic fura-2 AM. The dishes with dye-loaded cells were mounted on the stage of Nikon TMS-F fluorescence inverted microscope with a Cohu model 4915 charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Fluorescent images were captured alternatively at excitation wavelengths of 340 and 380 nm with an emission wavelength of 520 nm. After establishment of a stable baseline, the responses to 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ was determined. [Ca²⁺]i was calculated using a ratio equation as described previously. Each analysis evaluated responses of 5 representative whole cells. Images were analyzed with InCyt Im2 version 4.62 imaging software (Intracellular Imaging, Cincinnati, Ohio). Images were calibrated using a fura-2 calcium imaging calibration kit (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) to create a calibration curve in solution, and cellular calibration was accomplished using digitonin (25 μmol/L) and pH 8.7 Tris-EGTA (100 mmol/L) to measure maximal and minimal [Ca²⁺]i levels respectively.

Total RNA Extraction

A total cellular RNA isolation kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.) was used to extract total RNA from cells according to manufacturer's instruction.

Quantitative Real Time PCR

Adipocyte 18s, cyclin A, NADPH oxidase, and UCP2 were quantitatively measured using a Smart Cycler Real Time PCR System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) with a TaqMan 1000 Core Reagent Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The primers and probe sets were ordered from Applied Biosystems TaqMan® Assays-on-Demand™ Gene Expression primers and probe set collection according to manufacture's instruction. Pooled adipocyte total RNA was serial-diluted in the range of 1.5625-25 ng and used to establish a standard curve; total RNAs for unknown samples were also diluted in this range. Reactions of quantitative RT-PCR for standards and unknown samples were also performed according to the instructions of Smart Cycler System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) and TaqMan Real Time PCR Core Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The mRNA quantitation for each sample was further normalized using the corresponding 18s quantitation.

Assessment of Cell Proliferation

Cells were plated in DMEM with different treatment in duplicate in 96-well plates. After 48 h, a CyQUANT Cell Proliferation Kit (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) was used following the manufacturer's protocol. a microplate fluorometer (Packard Instrument Company, Inc., Downers Grove, Ill.) was used to measure CyQUANT fluorescence. Cell viability was determined by Trypan blue exclusion examination.

Determination of Intracellular ROS Generation

Intracellular ROS generation was assessed using 6-carboxy-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2-DCFDA) as described previously (Manea et al., 2004). Cells were loaded with H2-DCFDA (2 μmol/L) 30 minute before the end of the incubation period (48 h). After washing twice with PBS, cells were scraped and disrupted by sonication on ice (20s). Fluorescence (emission 543 nm or 527 nm) and DNA content were then measured as described previously. The intensity of fluorescence was expressed as arbitary units per ng DNA.

Statistical Analysis

All data are expressed as mean±SEM. Data were evaluated for statistical significance by analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significantly different group means were then separated by the least significant difference test by using SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill.).

Results

Our first aim was to examine whether ROS have effect on adipocyte proliferation. The data presented in FIG. 12 indicate that this is indeed the case. Treatment of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with H₂O₂ increased the total DNA of cultured cells by 39% (p<0.001), while addition of antioxidant α-tocopherol completely blocked this effect. The effect of ROS on adipocyte proliferation appears to be regulated by mitochondrial uncoupling and intracellular calcium homeostasis. Addition of mitochondrial uncoupling inhibitor GDP augmented the stimulation of cell proliferation by H₂O₂ by 183% (p<0.005) while calcium channel antagonist nifedipine had the opposite effect and suppressed H₂O₂ induced cell DNA synthesis (p<0.05). Since inhibiting mitochondrial uncoupling and increasing [Ca²⁺]i have been demonstrated to contribute to increased ROS production, GDP may increases DNA synthesis by increasing ROS production while nifedipine exerts the opposite effect via suppression of ROS production. Consistent with this, FIG. 13 shows that addition of GDP increased ROS production by 24% (p<0.01) compare H₂O₂ treatment alone while nifedipine inhibited H₂O₂ induced ROS production by 25% (p<0.003). FIGS. 12 and 13 also demonstrate that addition of antioxidant α-tocopherol inhibited both ROS production and DNA synthesis in all groups. These results suggest that ROS stimulated cell proliferation in cultured adipocytes and that this effect can be regulated by mitochondrial uncoupling status and intracellular homeostasis. Similar results were also observed in human adipocytes (data not shown).

To further investigate the interaction between ROS and mitochondrial uncoupling status, we measured mitochondrial potential in both wild-type 3T3-L1 adipocytes and UCP2 transfected 3T3-L1 adipocytes. FIG. 14 demonstrates that H₂O₂ increased mitochondrial potential by 72% and that addition of GDP augmented this effect by 10%, indicating that ROS production inhibits mitochondrial uncoupling. Nifedipine suppressed the H₂O₂ induced increase in mitochondrial potential and this result confirms that calcium channel antagonist inhibits ROS production. UCP2 transfection increased mitochondrial potential and suppressed the effect of H₂O₂ on mitochondrial uncoupling, indicating that ROS production is regulated, in part by mitochondrial potential and UCP2.

FIG. 15 demonstrates that ROS has a direct role in regulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. H₂O₂ induced a 5-fold increase in [Ca²⁺]i (p<0.001) and this effect was reversed by addition of antioxidant α-tocopherol. Since suppression of intracellular calcium influx by nifedipine decreased ROS production as described in FIG. 13, this result suggests a positive feedback interaction between ROS production and intracellular calcium homeostasis: ROS stimulate [Ca²⁺]i and elevated [Ca²⁺]i also favors ROS production. Similar results were observed in Zen-Bio human adipocytes (data not shown).

Hyperglycemia is one of the most common clinical signs in obesity and diabetes, which has been demonstrated to be associated with increased ROS production. Accordingly, we next investigated the effect and mechanism of high glucose level on ROS production and consequent adipocyte proliferation. As shown in FIG. 16, high glucose treatment increased ROS production significantly (p<0.05) and this effect was partially reversed by addition of nifedipine. Addition of GDP further stimulated ROS production compared to glucose alone. Notably, treatment of adipocytes with 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃, which was previously found to suppress mitochondrial uncoupling and to increase [Ca²⁺]i in adipocytes, resulted in greater stimulation of ROS production than either glucose alone or glucose plus GDP (p<0.05), suggesting that 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ stimulates ROS production by both inhibition of mitochondrial uncoupling and stimulation of [Ca²⁺]i. Glucose also increased [Ca²⁺]i by 3-fold (p<0.001) (FIG. 17) and this effect was partially blocked by addition of α-tocopherol, indicating that stimulation of [Ca²⁺]i by high glucose is partially attributable to ROS production. Consistent with this, FIG. 18 shows that high glucose also increased expression of NADPH oxidase (p<0.001), a key enzyme in ROS production, in both wild-type and UCP2 transfected 3T3-L1 adipocytes, but UCP2 overexpression attenuated this effect. These results suggest that high glucose may increase ROS production by stimulating NADPH oxidase expression. Addition of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ stimulated NADPH oxidase expression while nifedipine suppressed its expression. Although GDP has been shown to increases ROS production, we found GDP suppressed NADPH oxidase expression, indicating that regulation of ROS production by GDP is not via up-regulation of ROS-generating enzyme gene expression. FIG. 19 provides further evidence for the role of UCP2 in the regulation high glucose induced ROS production. High glucose inhibits UCP2 expression in both wild type and UCP2 transfected adipocytes, indicating that high glucose stimulates ROS production by regulating mitochondrial uncoupling status.

FIG. 20 demonstrates that stimulation of ROS production by high glucose is associated with increased DNA synthesis. High glucose alone significantly increased DNA synthesis (p<0.03) and this effect was by augmented by addition of GDP or 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃. In contrast, inhibition of ROS production by nifedipine decreased glucose induced DNA synthesis (p<0.05). To further investigate the effect of high glucose on adipocyte proliferation, we also observed the expression of cyclin A (FIG. 21). Consistent with the DNA synthesis data, high glucose stimulated cyclin A expression by 3-fold (p<0.001), and GDP and 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ augmented this effect while nifedipine suppressed its expression. These data suggest high glucose stimulates adipocyte proliferation and this effect may be at least partially mediated by its stimulation of ROS production.

Discussion

Obesity and diabetes are associated with increased oxidative stress, and ROS may play a role in regulation of adipocyte proliferation. In the present study, we demonstrated that a low concentration of H₂O₂ stimulates cell proliferation in cultured adipocytes. This effect can be augmented by a mitochondrial uncoupling inhibitor and suppressed by a calcium channel antagonist, indicating that mitochondrial potential and intracellular calcium homeostasis may play a role in regulation of ROS induced cell proliferation. 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃, which has been demonstrated to stimulate [Ca²⁺]i and to inhibit UCP2 expression, stimulates ROS production and cell proliferation in adipocytes. High glucose also exerts stimulatory effect on ROS production and this effect can be augmented by addition of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃, suggesting that 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ may involved in regulation of ROS production in adipocytes. These results indicate that strategies to suppress 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ levels, such as increasing dietary calcium, may reduce oxidative stress and thereby inhibit ROS-induced stimulation of adipocyte proliferation.

Elevated oxidative stress has been reported in both humans and animal models of obesity (Sonta et aL, 2004; Atabek et al., 2004), suggesting that ROS may play a critical role in the mechanisms underlying proliferative responses. This concept is supported by evidence that both H₂O₂ and superoxide anion induce mitogenesis and cell proliferation in several mamnmalian cell types (Burdon 1995). Furthermore, reduction of oxidants via supplementation with antioxidants inhibits cell proliferation in vitro (Khan et al., 2004; Simeone et al., 2004). Although the mechanisms for the involvement of oxidative stress in the induction of cell proliferation are not known, it has been demonstrated that ROS and other free radicals influence the expression of number of genes and transduction pathways involved in cell growth and proliferation. The most significant effects of oxidant on signaling pathways have been observed in the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase/AP1, and it has been suggested that ROS can activate MAP kinases and thereby transcription factors activator protein-1(AP-1) (Chang et al., 2001), a collection of dimeric basic region-leucine zipper proteins which activates cyclin-dependent kinase and entry into cell division cycle (Kouzarides et al., 1989). Furthermore, the elevation of cytosolic calcium level induced by ROS results in activation of protein kinase C (PKC) required for expression of positive regulators of cell proliferation such as c-fos and c-jun (Lin 2004; Amstad et al., 1992; Hollander et al., 1989). ROS have also been implicated as a second messenger involved in activation of NF-κB (Song et al., 2004), whose expression has been shown to stimulate cell proliferation via tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) (Giri et al., 1998). The effect of ROS on NF-κB activation is further supported by studies which demonstrated that expression NF-κB can be suppressed by antioxidants (Nomura et al., 2000; Schulze-Osthoff et al., 1997). In addition, ROS can modify DNA methylation and cause oxidative DNA damage, which result in decreased methylation patterns (Weitzman et al., 1994) and consequently contribute to an overall aberrant gene expression. ROS may also attribute to the inhibition of cell-to-cell communication and this effect can result in decreased regulation of homeostatic growth control of normal surrounding cells and lead to clonal expansion (Cerutti et al., 1994; Upham et al., 1997). Despite these mechanisms proposed to explain the stimulatory effect on cell proliferation, limited studies have been conducted on adipocytes. In present study, we demonstrated that low concentrations of ROS promote cell proliferation in cultured human and murine adipocytes. However, further investigation for the underlying molecular mechanisms is required.

The yield of ROS can be efficiently modulated by mitochondrial uncoupling. Korshunov et al. has demonstrated that slight increase of the H⁺ backflux (to the matrix), which diminishes Δψ, results in a substantial decrease of mitochondrial ROS formation (Korshunov et al., 1997). Accordingly, the H⁺ backflow from UCP-induced uncoupling would be expected to down-regulate ROS production. In addition, calcium can active ROS-generating enzymes directly and activation of calcium dependent PKC favors assembly of the active NADPH-oxidase complex (Gordeeva et al., 2003), indicating that [Ca²⁺]i may be another key player in regulation of ROS production. Accordingly, it is reasonable to propose that 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃, which has been demonstrated both to inhibit mitochondrial uncoupling and to stimulate [Ca²⁺]i in adipocytes, would stimulate ROS production and may consequently be involved in the regulation of adipocyte proliferation. Indeed, in the present study, we have shown that addition of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ augmented high glucose-induced ROS production and adipocyte proliferation. This effect was further enhanced by a mitochondrial uncoupling inhibitor and suppressed by calcium channel antagonism, indicating that 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ stimulates ROS production by increasing [Ca²⁺]i and by inhibiting mitochondrial uncoupling. Furthermore, previous studies suggest that 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ may act as an prooxidant in various cell types (Koren et al., 2001) and treatment with 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ inhibited the expression of the major constituents of the cellular defense system against ROS (Banakar et al., 2004).

Previous data from our laboratory have demonstrated that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ appears to modulate adipocyte lipid and energy metabolism via both genomic and non-genomic pathways (Zemel, 2004; Shi et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2002). We have reported that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plays a direct role in the modulation adipocyte Ca²⁺ signaling, resulting in an increased lipogenesis and decreased lipolysis (Shi et al., 2001). In addition, 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ also plays a role in regulating human adipocyte UCP2 mRNA and protein levels, indicating that the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ and the resulting up-regulation of UCP2 may contribute to increased rates of lipid oxidation (Shi et al., 2002). In addition, we also demonstrate that physiological doses of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ inhibit apoptosis in differentiated human and 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Sun et al., 2004b), and that the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ in vivo by increasing dietary calcium stimulates adipocyte apoptosis in aP2 transgenic mice (Sun et al., 2004b), suggesting that the stimulation of adipocyte apoptosis contributes to the observed reduction in adipose tissue mass after administration of high calcium diets (Shi et al., 2002). Accordingly, the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ by increasing dietary calcium attenuates adipocyte triglyceride accumulation and caused a net reduction in fat mass in both mice and humans in the absence of caloric restriction (Zemel et al., 2000), a marked augmentation of body weight and fat loss during energy restriction in both mice and humans (Zemel et al., 2000; Zemel et al., 2004), and a reduction in the rate of weight and fat regain following energy restriction in mice (Sun et al., 2004). Data from present study provide further evidence to support the role of 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ in favoring energy storage and fat mass expansion by stimulating ROS production and adipocyte proliferation. ROS stimulates adipocyte proliferation and this effect can by suppressed by mitochondrial uncoupling and stimulated by elevation of intracellular calcium. 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ increases ROS production by inhibiting UCP2 expression and increasing [Ca²⁺]i and consequently favors adipocyte proliferation. Accordingly, the present data suggest that suppression 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ by increasing dietary calcium may reduce 1α, 25-(OH)₂D₃ mediated ROS production and limit ROS induced adipocyte proliferation, resulting in reduced adiposity.

This work demonstrated a direct effect of oxidative stress on adipocyte proliferation in white adipose tissue and this observation may have important implications in understanding the adipose mass changes observed under oxidative stress. However, cell proliferation was only evaluated by DNA content and cyclin expression level. Further, various sources of ROS production may play different roles in regulation of cell signaling in cell cycle and cell metabolism. Although we demonstrated both mitochondrial ROS production and cellular enzymatic ROS production are associated with adipocyte proliferation, the contribution of each source needs further investigation.

EXAMPLE 3 Calcium and 1,25-(OH)₂-D₃ Regulation of Adipokine Expression in Murine and Human Adipocytes and aP2-Agouti Transgenic Mice Materials and Methods

Animals and Diets

At 6 wk of age, 20 male aP2-agouti transgenic mice from our colony were randomly divided into two groups (10 mice/group) and fed a modified AIN 93 G diet with suboptimal calcium (0.4% from calcium carbonate) or high calcium (1.2% from calcium carbonate) respectively. Sucrose was the sole carbohydrate source, providing 64% of energy, and fat was increased to 25% of energy with lard. Mice were studied for three weeks, during which food intake and spillage were measured daily and body weight, fasting blood glucose, food consumption assessed weekly. At the conclusion of the study, all mice were killed under isofluorane anesthesia and blood collected via cardiac puncture; visceral fat pads (perirenal and abdominal), subcutaneous fat pads (subscapular) and soleus muscle were immediately excised, weighed and used for further study, as described below.

This study was approved from an ethical standpoint by the Institutional Care and Use Committee of The University of Tennessee.

Cell Culture

3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were incubated at a density of 8000 cells/cm² (10 cm² dish) and grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) containing 10% FBS and antibiotics (adipocyte medium) at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ in air. Confluent pre-adipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 1% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 1 μM dexamethasone, isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) (0.5 mM) and antibiotics (1% Penicillin-Streptomycin). Pre-adipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium. Cultures were re-fed every 2-3 days to allow 90% cells to reach fully differentiation before conducting chemical treatment.

Human pre-adipocytes used in this study were supplied by Zen-Bio (Research Triangle, N.C.). Preadipocytes were inoculated in DMEM/Ham's F-10 medium (DMEM-F10) (1:1, vol/vol) containing 10% FBS, 15 mmol/L 4-2-hydroxyethyl-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES), and antibiotics at a density of 30,000 cells/cm². The cells are isolated from the stromal vascular fraction of human subcutaneous adipose tissue and differentiated in vitro as follows: Confluent monolayers of pre-adipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 15 mmol/L HEPES, 3% FBS, 33 μmol/L biotin, 17 μmol/L pantothenate, 100 nmol/L insulin, 0.25 μmol/L methylisobutylxanthine, 1 μmol/L dexamethasone, 1 μmol/L BRL49653, and antibiotics. Preadipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium in which BRL49653 and MIX were omitted. Cultures were re-fed every 2-3 days till fully differentiated.

Cells were incubated in serum free medium overnight before chemical treatment. Chemicals were freshly diluted in adipocyte medium before treatment. Cells were washed with fresh adipocyte medium, re-fed with medium containing the different treatments (control, 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃, 10 μmol/L nifedipine, 10 nmol/L 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plus 10 μmol/L nifepipine, 100 nmol/L H₂O₂, 1 μmol/L α±tocopherol, or 100 nmol/L H₂O₂ plus 1 μmol/L α±tocopherol) and incubated at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ for 48 h in air before analysis. Cell viability was measured via trypan blue exclusion.

Total RNA Extraction

A total cellular RNA isolation kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.) was used to extract total RNA from cells according to manufacturer's instruction.

Plasma 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ Assay

A 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃-vitamin D ELISA kit was used to measure plasma 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ content according to the manufacturer's instructions (Alpco Diagnostics, Windham, N.H.).

Quantitative Real Time PCR

Adipocyte and muscle 18s, TNFα, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15 and adiponectin were quantitatively measured using a smart cycler real-time PCR system (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) with a TaqMan 1000 Core Reagent Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The primers and probe sets were obtained from Applied Biosystems TaqMan® Assays-on-Demand™ Gene Expression primers and probe set collection and utilized according to manufacture's instructions. Pooled adipocyte total RNA was serial-diluted in the range of 1.5625-25 ng and used to establish a standard curve; and total RNA for the unknown samples were also diluted in this range. Reactions of quantitative RT-PCR for standards and unknown samples were also performed according to the instructions of Smart Cycler System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) and TaqMan Real Time PCR Core Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The mRNA quantitation for each sample was further normalized using the corresponding 18s quantitation.

Statistical Analysis

Data were evaluated for statistical significance by analysis of variance (ANOVA) or t-test, and significantly different group means were then separated by the least significant difference test by using SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill.). All data presented are expressed as mean±SEM.

Results

Dietary calcium regulates inflammatory cytokine production in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Feeding the high calcium ad libitum for 3 weeks significantly decreased weight and fat gain (Table 4) and suppressed TNFα gene expression by 64% in visceral, but not subcutaneous, fat compared with mice on low calcium basal diet (FIG. 22A)(p<0.001). Similarly, IL-6 expression was decreased by 51% in visceral fat of mice on the high calcium diet versus mice on the low calcium basal diet (FIG. 22B) (p<0.001) and this effect was absent in subcutaneous fat. In contrast, dietary calcium up-regulated IL-15 expression in visceral fat, with a 52% increases in mice on high calcium diet compared with animals on low calcium diet (FIG. 23A) (p=0.001). Adiponectin expression was similarly elevated in visceral fat of mice on the high calcium diet versus mice on low calcium diet (FIG. 23B) (p=0.025). The high calcium diet also induced a 2-fold increase in IL-15 expression in soleus muscle compared with mice on low calcium diet (FIG. 23C) (p=0.01).

Intracellular calcium and 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ regulates cytokine production in cultured murine and human adipocytes. We investigated the role of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ and calcium in regulation of adipokine production in vitro. FIG. 24A shows that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ stimulated TNFα expression by 135% in 3T3-L1 adipocyte and addition of calcium channel antagonist nifedipine completely blocked this effect (p<0.001), while nifedipine alone exerted no effect. Similarly, 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ markedly increased IL-6 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocyte and this effect was reversed by addition of nifedipine (p=0.016) (FIG. 24B). Similar results were observed in human adipocytes (data not shown). These data suggested that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D3 stimulated cytokine production by increasing intracellular calcium influx. The high calcium diet suppressed plasma 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ (FIG. 24C).

Similar results were also observed in differentiated human adipocytes; 1α, 25-(OH)2-D₃ stimulated IL-6 and IL-8 expression by 53% and 49% respectively (FIG. 25A, p=0.004) (FIG. 25B, p<0.001), and the addition of nifedipine blocked this effect. However, we found no effect of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ or nifedipine on IL-15 (FIG. 25C, p=0.473) or adiponectin expression (FIG. 25D, p=0.377) in the human adipocytes.

Reactive oxygen species exerted direct impact on cytokine production in cultured adipocytes. The direct role of ROS in regulation of adipose cytokine production was investigated in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. FIG. 26A shows that hydrogen peroxides increased IL-6 expression by 167% (p<0.001) and that this effect was attenuated by the addition of anti-oxidant α±tocopherol (p=0.016), indicating that ROS exerted a direct role in stimulation of inflammatory cytokine production. α±tocopherol also increased adiponectin production (p=0.002), although ROS (hydrogen peroxide) was without significant effect (p=0.06) (FIG. 26B). Similarly, there was no direct effect of ROS on IL-15 expression; however, addition of α±tocopherol markedly increased IL-15 by 2.2-fold as compared to H₂O₂-treated cells (P=0.043) (FIG. 26C), providing further evidence that oxidative stress is involved in adipocyte cytokine production

Discussion

Previous data from our laboratory demonstrate that dietary calcium exerts an anti-obesity effect and suppresses obesity associated oxidative stress via a 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ mediated mechanism (Zemel, 2005b; Zemel, 2004). We have demonstrated that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ plays a direct role in the modulation of adipocyte Ca²⁺ signaling, resulting in an increased lipogenesis and decreased lipolysis (Shi et al., 2001). In addition, 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ is also involved in regulation of metabolic efficiency by modulating adipocyte UCP2 expression (Shi et al., 2003). Accordingly, the suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ by increasing dietary calcium attenuates adipocyte triglyceride accumulation and causes a net reduction in fat mass in both mice and humans in the absence of caloric restriction (Zemel et al., 2000; Zemel et al., 2005b), a marked augmentation of body weight and fat loss during energy restriction in both mice and humans (Zemel et al., 2000; Thompson et al., 2005; Zemel et al., 2004; Zemel et al., 2005a), and a reduction in the rate of weight and fat regain following energy restriction in mice (Sun et al., 2004a). Given that obesity and related disorders are associated with low grade systemic inflammation (Lee et al., 2005), it is possible that dietary calcium may also play a role in modulating adipose tissue cytokine production. Data from the present study demonstrate that dietary calcium decreased production of pro-inflammatory factors such as TNFα and IL-6 and increased anti-inflammatory molecules such as IL-15 and adiponectin in visceral fat. We also found that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ stimulated TNFα, IL-6 and IL-8 production in cultured human and murine adipocytes and that this effect was completely blocked by a calcium channel antagonist, suggesting that dietary calcium suppresses inflammation factor production in adipocyte and that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃-induced Ca²⁺ influx may be a key mediator of this effect. FIGS. 22-23 demonstrate that dietary calcium decreased expression of pro-inflammatory factors (TNFα and IL-6) and increased anti-inflammatory molecules (IL-15 and adiponectin) in visceral adipose tissue and that dietary calcium up-regulates expression of IL-15 in both visceral adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, and stimulates adiponectin expression in visceral adipose tissue in aP2 agouti transgenic mice. This suggests that dietary calcium is involved in regulation of energy metabolism by modulating endocrine function of both adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, resulting in a pattern which favors reduced energy storage in adipose tissue and elevated protein synthesis and energy expenditure in skeletal muscle.

Obesity is associated with increased expression of inflammatory markers (Valle et al., 2005), while weight loss results in decreased expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory components in obese individuals (Clement et al., 2004). Accordingly, modulation of the adipose tissue mass appears to result in corresponding modulation of cytokine production. TNFα and IL-6 are two intensively studied cytokines in obesity and have been consistently found to be increased in the white adipose tissue of obese subjects (Cottam et al., 2004). Previous studies suggest that white adipose tissue contributes a considerable portion of circulating IL-6, with visceral fat contributing markedly more IL-6 compared with subcutaneous fat (Fried et al., 1998; Fain et al., 2004). Expression of TNFα is increased in inflammatory conditions such as obesity and cachexia and considered a likely mediator of insulin resistance associated with visceral adiposity (Hotamisligil et al., 1994; Ofei et al., 1996). Consistent with this, diet-induced obesity in present study resulted in increased expression of TNFα and IL-6 in visceral fat, and dietary calcium attenuated these effects.

IL-15 is highly expressed in skeletal muscle, where it exerts anabolic effects (Busquets et al., 2005). IL-15 administration reduces muscle protein degradation and inhibits skeletal muscle wasting in degenerative conditions such as cachexia (Carbo et al., 2000a). Interestingly, IL-15 exerts the opposite effect in adipose tissue; administration of IL-15 reduced fat deposition without altering food intake and suppressed fat gain in growing rats (Carbo et al., 2000b; Carbo et al., 2001). IL-15 also stimulates adiponectin secretion in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Quinn et al., 2005), indicating a role for IL-15 in regulating adipocyte metabolism. These observations suggest that IL-15 might be involved in a muscle-fat endocrine axis and regulate energy utilization between the two tissues (Argiles et al., 2005). We previously found calcium-rich diets to suppress fat gain and accelerate fat loss while protecting muscle mass in diet-induced obesity and during energy restriction, indicating that dietary calcium may similarly regulate energy partitioning in a tissue selective manner. In the present study, we provide the first in vivo evidence that dietary calcium up-regulates IL-15 expression in visceral adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, and stimulates adiponectin expression in visceral adipose tissue, skeletal muscle and stimulates adiponectin expression in visceral adipose tissue in aP2 agouti transgenic mice. This suggests that dietary calcium may also regulate energy metabolism, in part, by modulating these cytokines in both adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, thereby favoring elevated energy expenditure in adipose tissue and preserving energy storage in skeletal muscle. However, we found no effect of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ on IL-15 expression in human adipocytes. Since these human adipocytes were originally developed from subcutaneous fat, these results further support our in vivo observations of dietary calcium regulation of adipocyte cytokine production in a depot specific manner, although we do not have data from human visceral adipocytes for comparison.

We have recently shown that 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ stimulated ROS production in cultured adipocytes and that suppression of 1α, 25-(OH)₂-D₃ via dietary calcium also attenuates adipose oxidative stress (Sun et al., 2006), suggesting a potential connection between oxidative tress and production of inflammatory factors. The present data demonstrate that hydrogen peroxide stimulates adipocyte IL-6 expression and α±tocopherol inhibits this effect. Although hydrogen peroxide showed no direct effect on the expression of anti-inflammatory factors adiponectin and IL-15, addition of α±tocopherol markedly elevated the expression of both, suggesting a direct role of oxidative stress in regulating inflammation. Indeed, previous studies have demonstrated that oxidative stress was augmented in adiposity, with ROS elevated in blood and tissue in various animal model of obesity (Suzuki et al., 2003; Furukawa et al., 2004), while markers of systemic oxidative stress were inversely related to plasma adiponectin in human subjects (Furukawa et al., 2004; Soares et al., 2005). Moreover, addition of oxidants suppressed expression of adiponectin and increased expression of IL-6, MCP-1 and PAI-1 (Soares et al., 2005). These results indicate that a local increase in oxidative stress in accumulated fat causes dysregulated production of adipocytokines. The role of adiposity in up-regulation of oxidative stress and inflammation has been investigated intensively. Fat accumulation stimulates NADPH oxidase expression in white adipose tissue (Sun et al., 2004d; Inoguchi et al., 2000). Further, NOX4, an isoform of NADPH oxidase, is expressed in adipocytes, but not in macrophage (Mahadev et al., 2004; Sorescu et al., 2002). Xu et al. (2003) and Weisberg et al. (2003) also reported that ROS stimulated macrophages infiltration of obese adipose tissue via ROS induced MCP-1 production and stimulated local NADPH oxidase expression and ROS production, indicating that both adipocytes and macrophages contribute to elevated oxidative stress in obesity.

Notably, the anti-inflammatory effect of dietary calcium is greater in visceral versus subcutaneous fat. We have previously observed similar pattern in adipocyte ROS production (Sun et al., 2006), in that ROS production and NADPH oxidase expression were markedly higher in visceral fat versus subcutaneous fat, suggesting that there may be an association between oxidative stress and inflammation in diet-induced obesity. Indeed, it was postulated that because visceral fat is more sensitive to lipolytic stimuli than adipose tissue stored at other sites, turnover of triacylglycerols and release of fatty acids into the portal circulation are increased (Wajchenberg, 2000). Free fatty acids, in addition, can stimulate ROS production by stimulating NADPH oxidase expression and activation (Soares et al., 2005). Accordingly, obesity associated with oxidative stress and inflammation may occur in a depot specific manner in adipose tissue, with significant higher ROS and inflammatory cytokines produced in visceral fat versus subcutaneous fat (Li et aL, 2003). In summary, the present study demonstrates that dietary calcium suppresses obesity associated inflammatory status by modulating pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factor expression, providing the evidence for the first time that increasing dietary calcium may contribute to suppression of obesity associated inflammation.

EXAMPLE 4 Calcium-Dependent Regulation of Macrophage Inhibitory Factor and CD14 Expression by Calcitriol in Human Adipocytes

Obesity increases oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine production in adipose tissue, and our recent data demonstrate that dietary calcium attenuates obesity-induced oxidative stress and inflammation. This effect may be explained by dietary calcium inhibition of calcitriol, which we have shown to stimulate reactive oxygen species and inflammatory cytokine production in cultured adipocytes. However, adipose tissue includes both endothelial cells and leukocytes as well as adipocytes; these appear to contribute to a low-grade inflammatory state in obesity. Accordingly, the interaction between adipocytes and leukocytes may play an important role in the local modulation of inflammation. Consequently, we investigated calcitriol modulation of the expression of macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF) and macrophage surface specific protein CD14, two key factors in regulating macrophage function and survival, in differentiated human adipocytes. Calcitriol markedly increased MIF and CD 14 expression by 59%(p=0.001) and 33% (p=0.008). respectively, while calcium channel antagonism with nifedipine completely reversed these effects, indicating that calcitriol stimulates MIF and CD14 expression via a calcium-dependent mechanism. Similar results were also found in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes; in addition, calcitriol also up-regulated M-CSF, MIP, MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) and IL-6 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocyte and stimulated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-6 expression in RAW264 macrophage cultured alone and this effect was blocked by either a calcium channel antagonist (nifedipine) or a mitochondrial uncoupler (DNP). Moreover, co-culture of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with RAW 264 macrophages significantly increased the expression and production of multiple inflammatory cytokines in response to calcitriol in both cell types. These data suggest that calcitriol may regulate macrophage activity by modulating adipocyte production of factors associated with macrophage function. These data also provide additional explanation for our recent observations that suppression of calcitriol by dietary calcium decreases obesity associated oxidative stress and inflammation

Materials and Methods

Cell culture: Human preadipocytes used in this study were supplied by Zen-Bio (Research Triangle, N.C.). Preadipocytes were inoculated in DMEM/Ham's F-10 medium (DMEM-F10) (1:1, vol/vol) containing 10% FBS, 15 mmol/L HEPES, and antibiotics at a density of 30,000 cells/cm2. Confluent monolayers of preadipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 15 mmol/L HEPES, 3% FBS, 33 μmol/L biotin, 17 μmol/L pantothenate, 100 nmol/L insulin, 0.25 μmol/L methylisobutylxanthine, 1 μmol/L dexamethasone, 1 μmol/L BRL49653, and antibiotics. Preadipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium in which BRL49653 and MIX were omitted. Cultures were re-fed every 2-3 days.

RAW 264 macrophages and 3T3-L1 preadipocytes (American Type Culture Collection) were incubated at a density of 8000 cells/cm2 (10 cm2 dish) and grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) containing 10% FBS and antibiotics (adipocyte medium) at 37° C. in 5% CO2 in air. Confluent 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were induced to differentiate with a standard differentiation medium consisting of DMEM-F10 (1:1, vol/vol) medium supplemented with 1% FBS, 1 μM dexamethasone, IBMX (0.5 mM) and antibiotics (1% Penicillin-Streptomycin). Preadipocytes were maintained in this differentiation medium for 3 days and subsequently cultured in adipocyte medium. Cultures were re-fed every 2-3 days to allow 90% cells to reach fully differentiation for 3T3-L1 adipocytes or grow to a confluence for RAW 264 before conducting chemical treatment. Cells were treated with or without calcitriol (10 nmol/L), GDP (100 μmol/L) and/or nifedipine (10 μmol/L) for 48 hours, as indicated in each figure.

Cells were washed with fresh adipocyte medium, re-fed with medium containing the indicated treatments, and incubated at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ for 48 hours before analysis. Cell viability was measured via trypan blue exclusion.

Cell Culture

Human adipocytes (Zen-Bio, Inc.), 3T3-L1 adipocytes, RAW264 macrophages were obtained and co-cultured by using transwell inserts with 0.4 μm porous membranes (Coming) to separate adipocytes and macrophages. All data are expressed as mean±SEM. Data were evaluated for statistical significance by analysis of one-way or two-way variance (ANOVA; means with different letter differ, p<0.05).

Total RNA Extraction:

A total cellular RNA isolation kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.) was used to extract total RNA from cells according to manufacturer's instruction. The concentration and purity of the isolated RNA was measured spectrophotometrically and the integrity of RNA sample was analyzed by BioAnalyzer (Agilent 2100, Agilent Tenchnologies).

Quantitative Real Time PCR:

Adipocyte and muscle 18s, CD14, TNFα, MIP, M-CSF, IL-6 and MCP-1 were quantitatively measured using a Smart Cycler Real Time PCR System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) with a TaqMan 1000 Core Reagent Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The primers and probe sets were obtained from Applied Biosystems TaqMan® Assays-on-Demand™ Gene Expression primers and probe set collection according to manufacture's instruction. Pooled adipocyte total RNA was serial-diluted in the range of 1.5625-25 ng and used to establish a standard curve; total RNAs for unknown samples were also diluted in this range. Reactions of quantitative RT-PCR for standards and unknown samples were also performed according to the instructions of Smart Cycler System (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, Calif.) and TaqMan Real Time PCR Core Kit (Applied Biosystems, Branchburg, N.J.). The mRNA quantitation for each sample was further normalized using the corresponding 18s quantitation.

Cytokine Antibody Array:

A TansSignal™ mouse cytokine antibody array kit (Panomics, Fremont, Calif.) was used to detect cytokine protein released in culture medium according to the manufacture's instruction. Briefly, membranes immobilized with capture antibodies specific to particular cytokine proteins was incubated with 1X blocking buffer for 2 hours and then blocking buffer was washed three times using washing buffer. Then, membranes were incubated in samples for 2 hours to allow cytokine protein in the culture medium to bind to the capture antibody on the membrane. At the end of the incubation, unbound protein was washed away using washing buffer. The membranes were then incubated with biotin-conjugated antibody mix which binds to a second epitope on the protein. The membrane was then washed and incubated with strepavidin-HRP to visualize the antibody-protein complexes on the array to determine which cytokines are present in the sample via chemiluminescent signal which was detected using X-ray film.

Statistical Analysis:

Each treatment was replicated with n=6, and data are expressed as mean±SEM. Data were evaluated for statistical significance by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significantly different group means were then separated by the least significant difference test by using SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill.). The co-culture experiments were analyzed via two-way (treatment X culture condition) ANOVA.

Results and Discussion

Obesity is characterized by increased oxidative and inflammatory stress. Adipose tissue is a significant source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expresses and secretes a wide variety of pro-inflammatory components in obese individuals, such as TNF-α and IL-6. Notably, the adipose tissue is not only composed of adipocytes but also contains a stromal vascular fraction that includes blood cells, endothelial cells and macrophages. Although adipocytes directly generate inflammatory mediators, adipose tissue-derived cytokines also originate substantially from non-fat cells, among which infiltrated macrophages appear to play a prominent role. Infiltration and differentiation of adipose tissue-resident macrophages are under the local control of chemokines, many of which are produced by adipocytes. Accordingly, the cross-talk between adipocytes and macrophages may be a key factor in mediating inflammatory and oxidative changes in obesity.

FIG. 27 demonstrates that calcitriol increased MIF (FIG. 27A) and CD14 (FIG. 27B) expression in human adipocytes by 59% and 33% respectively, and addition of a calcium channel antagonist (nifedipine) reversed this effect, indicating a role of intracellular calcium in mediating this effect. FIG. 28, consistent with FIG. 27, demonstrates that calcitriol increased MIF expression by 50% (FIG. 28A) and CD14 expression by 45% (FIG. 28B) in mouse (3T3-L1) adipocytes and the addition of a calcium channel antagonist (nifedipine) reversed this effect. FIGS. 29, 30 and 31 show that calcitriol markedly stimulate inflammatory cytokines M-CSF (FIG. 29), MIP (FIG. 30), IL-6 (FIG. 31) and MCP-1 (FIG. 34) expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and co-culture with RAW 264 macrophages enhance this effect, indicating a potential role of adipocytes in regulation of local resident macrophages activity and that calcitriol may regulate macrophage activity by modulating adipocyte production of factors associated with macrophage function. Main effects of chemical treatment and culture status were significant (p<0.02).

A cytokine antibody array was used to further investigate the effects of calcitriol on release of major inflammatory cytokines from adipocytes. These protein data support the gene expression observations, as calcitriol up-regulated production of multiple inflammatory cytokine proteins in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes cultured alone (FIG. 32); these include TNFα, IL-6, IL-2, Granulocyte/Macrophage-Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF), Interferon-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), IL-4, IL-13, macrophage induced gene (MIG), regulated upon T cell activation expressed secreted (RANTES), IL-5, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α (MIP-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Co-culture of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with macrophages significantly up-regulated production of cytokines such as interferon γ (IFN γ), TNFα, G-CSF and MIP-1α compared with 3T3-L1 cultured alone (FIG. 33), and calcitriol further stimulated inflammatory cytokine production (FIG. 33).

Calcitriol also markedly stimulated TNFα expression by 91% (FIG. 35) and IL-6 by 796% (FIG. 36) in RAW 264 macrophages cultured alone and these effects were blocked by adding nifedipine or DNP. Co-culture of macrophages with differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes markedly augmented TNFα (FIG. 35) and IL-6 (FIG. 36) expression in macrophages, and these effects were further enhanced by calcitriol.

Data from this study demonstrate that calcitriol stimulates production of adipokines associated with macrophage function and increases inflammatory cytokine expression in both macrophages and adipocytes; these include CD14, MIF, M-CSF, MIP, TNFα, IL-6 and MCP-1 in adipocytes, and TNFα and IL-6 in macrophages. Consistent with this, the cytokine protein array identified multiple additional inflammatory cytokines which were up-regulated by calcitriol in adipocytes. Moreover, calcitriol also regulated cross-talk between macrophages and adipocytes, as shown by augmentation of expression and production of inflammatory cytokines from adipocytes and macrophages in coculture versus individual culture. These effects were attenuated by either calcium channel antagonism or mitochondrial uncoupling, indicating that the pro-inflammatory effect of calcitriol are mediated by calcitriol-induced stimulation of Ca2+ signaling and attenuation of mitochondrial uncoupling.

These data demonstrate that calcitriol regulates both adipocyte and macrophage production of inflammatory factors via calcium-dependent and mitochondrial uncoupling-dependent mechanisms and that these effects are amplified with co-culture of both cell types. These data further suggest that strategies for reducing circulating calcitriol levels, such as increasing dietary calcium, may regulating adipocyte macrophage interaction and thereby attenuate local inflammation in adipose tissue.

EXAMPLE 5 Dietary Calcium and Dairy Modulation of Oxidative and Inflammatory Stress in Mice

Obesity is associated with subclinical chronic inflammation which contributes to obesity-associated co-morbidities. Calcitriol (1, 25-(OH)₂-D₃) regulates adipocyte lipid metabolism, while dietary calcium inhibits obesity by suppression of calcitriol. We have recently shown this anti-obesity effect to be associated with decreased oxidative and inflammatory stress in adipose tissue in vivo. However, dairy contains additional bioactive compounds which markedly enhance its anti-obesity activity and which we propose will also enhance its ability to suppress oxidative and inflammatory stress. Accordingly, the objective of this study was to determine the effects of dietary calcium and dairy on oxidative and inflammatory stress in a mouse model (aP2-agouti transgenic mice) that we have previously demonstrated to be highly predictive of the effects of calcium and dairy on adiposity in humans and have recently established as a model for the study of oxidative stress.

Study: Six-week old aP2-agouti transgenic mice were fed a modified AIN 93-G diet with sucrose as the sole carbohydrate source (64% of energy), and fat increased to 25% of energy with lard. A total of 30 animals will be studied for three weeks (n=10/group), as follows: Control (low Ca) suboptimal calcium (0.4%); High Ca with 1.2% calcium in the form of CaCO₃; High Dairy: 50% of the protein was replaced by nonfat dry milk and dietary calcium will be increased to 1.2%. Approximately ½ of the additional calcium was derived from the milk and the remainder was added as CaCO₃. Food intake and spillage was monitored daily and body weight and blood glucose was measured weekly. Following three weeks of feeding, all animals from each group were killed for determination of the following outcome measurements: plasma insulin, MDA calcitriol and cytokine (IL-6, MCP, IL-15, adiponectin and TNFα; adipose Tissue:IL-6, MCP, IL-15, adiponectin, TNF-α and NADPH oxidase expression, tissue release of adipokines, ROS production; muscle: real-time PCR of NADPH oxidase, IL-6 and IL-15; Tissue release of cytokines, ROS production.

Results: Body weight and composition: A three-week study duration was utilized in order to avoid major calcium- and milk-induced alterations in adiposity, as adiposity-induced oxidative stress could cause a degree of confounding. Nonetheless, there were modest, but statistically significant diet-induced changes in body weight and composition. The high calcium diet was without effect on body weight, but the milk diet did induce a significant decrease in total body weight (FIG. 37). In contrast, both the calcium and the milk diets caused significant decreases in body fat, with the milk diet eliciting a significantly greater effect (FIG. 38).

Skeletal muscle weight (soleus+gastrocnemius) exhibited overall differences (p=0.05) among the dietary groups. The milk group had significantly greater skeletal muscle mass than the calcium group (p=0.02) and a tendency towards greater skeletal muscle mass than the basal group (p=0.06) (FIG. 39). Liver weight was slightly, but significantly, reduced by the milk diet (FIG. 40).

Circulating calcitriol: The high calcium diet caused a reduction in plasma 1,25-(OH)₂-D (calcitriol) (p=0.002), and there was a trend (p=0.059) towards a further decrease in plasma calcitriol on the high milk diet (FIG. 41). The reason for the difference between the calcium and milk diets in suppressing calcitriol is not clear, as they contain the same levels of dietary calcium.

Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress: Adipose tissue reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was significantly reduced by the high calcium diet (p=0.002), consistent with our previous data, and further reduced by the milk diet (p=0.03) (FIG. 42). Consistent with this, the high calcium diet caused a significant reduction in adipose tissue NADPH oxidase (Nox; one of the sources of intracellular ROS) expression (p=0.001) and there was a strong trend (p=0.056) towards a further suppression of NOX on the milk diet (FIG. 43).

These changes were reflected in significant decreases in systemic lipid peroxidation, as demonstrated by significant decreases in plasma malonaldehyde (MDA). Plasma MDA was significantly decreased by both the calcium and milk diets (p=0.001), with a significantly greater effect of the milk diet (p=0.039) (FIG. 44).

Inflammatory Stress: In general, the high calcium diet resulted in suppression of inflammatory markers and an upregulation of anti-inflammatory markers, and the milk diet exerted a greater effect than the high calcium diet. Adipose tissue expression of TNFα (FIG. 45), IL-6 (FIG. 46) and MCP (FIG. 47) were all significantly suppressed by the high calcium diet. Expression of each of these inflammatory cytokines was lower on the milk diet than on the high calcium diet, but this difference was only statistically evident as a trend for TNF-α (p=0.076).

Consistent with these data, the calcium and milk diets caused significant reductions in the release of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, FIG. 48; IL6, FIG. 49) from adipose tissue. There was trend towards a greater effect of the milk vs. calcium diet, but this difference was not statistically significant.

There was a corresponding up-regulation of adipose tissue anti-inflammatory cytokine expression on the high calcium diets. The high calcium and milk diets increased adiponectin expression (p=0.001; FIG. 50) and IL-15 expression (p=0.001; FIG. 51), and there was a trend for a further increase on the milk diet vs. high calcium diet (p=0.073 for adiponectin; p=0.068 for IL-15).

Similarly, there was a marked increase in skeletal muscle IL-15 expression on the high calcium diet (p<0.001), with a further increase on the milk diet (p=0.07; FIG. 52).

These data clearly demonstrate that dietary calcium suppresses both adipose tissue and systemic oxidative stress, and that dairy (milk) exerts a significantly greater effect. It may be argued that the reduced adipose tissue mass may have contributed to the decrease in oxidative stress on the high milk diet. However, this is unlikely, as the decrease in adiposity was quite modest compared to the decrease in oxidative stress. Moreover, the decrease in adipose tissue ROS production and Nox expression are normalized to reflect decreases per adipocyte as well as total systemic decreases. Accordingly, these decreases in oxidative stress appear to be direct effects of the high calcium and high dairy diets. Data from this study also demonstrate a marked reduction in adipose tissue-derived inflammatory cytokines on the high calcium diets, with a strong trend towards further suppression of inflammatory cytokines on the milk vs. high calcium diet. Moreover, anti-inflammatory cytokine expression is significantly up-regulated on the high calcium diet, with further improvements evident on the milk vs. calcium diet. Although there are additional analyses to be completed, these data indicate a marked shift in the ratio of anti-inflammatory to inflammatory cytokines on high calcium diets, with further improvements in this ratio when milk is used as the calcium source. Thus, data from this pilot study strongly suggest that dietary calcium suppresses oxidative and inflammatory stress, consistent with our previous data, and that other components of milk enhance this effect to produce greater control of both oxidative and inflammatory stress.

EXAMPLE 6 Leucine and Calcium Modulation of Adipocyte-Skeletal Muscle Energy Partitioning

The adipose tissue-skeletal muscle endocrine axis may play a potential role in regulating metabolic energy partitioning. We have previous shown that dietary calcium exhibits an inhibitory effect on obesity and that dairy products exert a greater effect on adiposity compared to supplemental or fortified sources of calcium. While both calcium and dairy accelerate adipose tissue loss, dairy exerts a substantially greater effect and exerts a protective effect on lean tissue during hypocaloric diets. We have shown that dietary calcium modulation of adiposity is mediated, in part, by suppression of calcitriol, while the additional effect of dairy is mediated by additional bioactive components; these include the high concentration of leucine, a key factor in the regulation of muscle protein turnover. These data suggest that dietary calcium provided with leucine may regulate energy partitioning in a tissue selective manner and regulate energy metabolism by modulating endocrine function of both adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, favoring elevated energy expenditure in adipose tissue and promoting protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. However, the effect of leucine and calcium, in regulating this process is unclear. Accordingly, present study was designed to investigate the effect of leucine, calcitriol and calcium on energy metabolism in murine adipocytes and muscle cells. Leucine induced a 41% increase in fatty acid oxidation in C2C12 muscle cells (p<0.001) and decreased fatty acid synthase gene expression by 66% (p<0.001) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Calcitriol decreased muscle cell fatty acid oxidation by 17% (p<0.05) and increased adipocyte FAS gene expression by 3-fold (p<0.05). These effects were partially reversed by either leucine or calcium channel antagonist nifedipine. Incubation of muscle cells with 48-h adipocyte conditioned medium decreased fatty acid oxidation by 56% (p<0.001), and leucine and/or nifedipine conditioned adipocyte attenuated this effect in muscle cells. These data suggest that leucine and nifedipine promote energy partitioning from adipocytes to muscle cells, resulting in decreased energy storage in adipocytes and increasing fatty acid utilization in muscle.

Although adiponectin has been reported to increase fatty acid oxidation in both mice and humans, the role of this adipokine in mediating the effects of leucine and calcium on energy metabolism in skeletal muscle and adipocytes is yet unclear. Consistent with previous studies, the present data demonstrate that adiponectin markedly increased fatty acid oxidation in C2C12 myotubes (FIG. 53). Further, adiponectin restored fatty acid oxidation suppressed by calcitriol in the present of leucine. Comparable effects of leucine, calcitriol and adiponectin were found in myotubes co-cultured with adipocytes; however, the presence of adipocytes markedly suppressed fatty acid oxidation. This was due to secreted factor(s), as a comparable suppression resulted from exposure of the myotubes to adipocyte conditioned medium (data not shown).

The new data also demonstrate that adiponectin regulates IL-15 and IL-6 release by myotubes in response to calcitriol, leucine and nefedipine. Adiponectin significantly increased IL-15 release, and partially reversed the inhibitory effects of calcitriol (FIG. 54). Leucine was without effect on IL-15 release, while nifedipine alone promoted IL-15 release but adiponectin exerted no addition effect. Adiponectin also increases IL-15 release in muscle cells treated with both leucine and nifedipine and this effect was not attenuated by addition of calcitriol, indicating the effect of calcitriol is mediated, at lease in part by calcium signaling. Comparable effects were found in myotubes co-cultured with adipocytes. Interestingly, the presence of adipocytes decreased IL-15 release under basal conditions but increased IL-15 release in with the presence of leucine and/or nifedipine. These data suggest that leucine and nifedipine regulate muscle-adipocyte cross-talk by modulating production of cytokines which affect energy partitioning between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Similar effects of adiponectin, calcitriol, leucine and nifedipine were observed in the regulation of IL-6 release in C2C12 myotubes (FIG. 55).

These data provide further supporting evidence for our proposal that the interaction between adipose tissue and muscle via a fat-muscle endocrine axis may play a potential role in regulating overall metabolic energy partitioning, and calcium, calcitriol and leucine modulate this process. These data also suggest that adiponectin is involved in this regulation, and that IL-15 and IL-6 may serve as skeletal muscle-derived messengers in this cross-talk. TABLE 1 Drug Name Trade Name Indication Manufacturer Aldesleukin Proleukin Chiron Corp Alemtuzumab Campath Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Millennium established) Campath is indicated for and ILEX the treatment of B-cell chronic Partners, LP lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) in patients who have been treated with alkylating agents and who have failed fludarabine therapy. alitretinoin Panretin Topical treatment of cutaneous lesions Ligand in patients with AIDS-related Kaposi's Pharmaceuticals sarcoma. allopurinol Zyloprim Patients with leukemia, lymphoma and Glaxo solid tumor malignancies who are SmithKline receiving cancer therapy which causes elevations of serum and urinary uric acid levels and who cannot tolerate oral therapy. altretamine Hexalen Single agent palliative treatment of US patients with persistent or recurrent Bioscience ovarian cancer following first-line therapy with a cisplatin and/or alkylating agent based combination. amifostine Ethyol To reduce the cumulative renal toxicity US associated with repeated Bioscience administration of cisplatin in patients with advanced ovarian cancer amifostine Ethyol Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not US established) Reduction of platinum Bioscience toxicity in non-small cell lung cancer amifostine Ethyol To reduce post-radiation xerostomia US for head and neck cancer where the Bioscience radiation port includes a substantial portion of the parotid glands. anastrozole Arimidex Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not AstraZeneca established) for the adjuvant treatment of postmenopausal women with hormone receptor positive early breast cancer anastrozole Arimidex Treatment of advanced breast cancer AstraZeneca in postmenopausal women with Pharmaceuticals disease progression following tamoxifen therapy. anastrozole Arimidex For first-line treatment of AstraZeneca postmenopausal women with hormone Pharmaceuticals receptor positive or hormone receptor unknown locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer. arsenic trioxide Trisenox Second line treatment of relapsed or Cell refractory APL following ATRA plus an Therapeutic anthracycline. Asparaginase Elspar ELSPAR is indicated in the therapy of Merck & Co, patients with acute lymphocytic Inc. leukemia. This agent is useful primarily in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents in the induction of remissions of the disease in pediatric patients. BCG Live TICE BCG Organon Teknika Corp bexarotene capsules Targretin For the treatment by oral capsule of Ligand cutaneous manifestations of cutaneous Pharmaceuticals T-cell lymphoma in patients who are refractory to at least one prior systemic therapy. bexarotene gel Targretin For the topical treatment of cutaneous Ligand manifestations of cutaneous T-cell Pharmaceuticals lymphoma in patients who are refractory to at least one prior systemic therapy. bleomycin Blenoxane Bristol-Myers Squibb bleomycin Blenoxane Sclerosing agent for the treatment of Bristol-Myers malignant pleural effusion (MPE) and Squibb prevention of recurrent pleural effusions. busulfan intravenous Busulfex Use in combination with Orphan cyclophoshamide as conditioning Medical, Inc. regimen prior to allogeneic hematopoietic progenitor cell transplantation for chronic myelogenous leukemia. busulfan oral Myleran Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia- Glaxo palliative therapy SmithKline calusterone Methosarb Pharmacia & Upjohn Company capecitabine Xeloda Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit Roche subsequently established) Treatment of metastatic breast cancer resistant to both paclitaxel and an anthracycline containing chemotherapy regimen or resistant to paclitaxel and for whom further anthracycline therapy may be contraindicated, e.g., patients who have received cumulative doses of 400 mg/m2 of doxorubicin or doxorubicin equivalents capecitabine Xeloda Initial therapy of patients with Roche metastatic colorectal carcinoma when treatment with fluoropyrimidine therapy alone is preferred. Combination chemotherapy has shown a survival benefit compared to 5-FU/LV alone. A survival benefit over 5_FU/LV has not been demonstrated with Xeloda monotherapy. capecitabine Xeloda Treatment in combination with Roche docetaxel of patients with metastatic breast cancer after failure of prior anthracycline containing chemotherapy carboplatin Paraplatin Palliative treatment of patients with Bristol-Myers ovarian carcinoma recurrent after prior Squibb chemotherapy, including patients who have been previously treated with cisplatin. carboplatin Paraplatin Initial chemotherapy of advanced Bristol-Myers ovarian carcinoma in combination with Squibb other approved chemotherapeutic agents. carmustine BCNU, BiCNU Bristol-Myers Squibb carmustine with Gliadel Wafer For use in addition to surgery to Guilford Polifeprosan 20 prolong survival in patients with Pharmaceuticals Implant recurrent glioblastoma multiforme who Inc. qualify for surgery. celecoxib Celebrex Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Searle established) Reduction of polyp number in patients with the rare genetic disorder of familial adenomatous polyposis. chlorambucil Leukeran Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia- Glaxo palliative therapy SmithKline chlorambucil Leukeran Glaxo SmithKline cisplatin Platinol Metastatic testicular-in established Bristol-Myers combination therapy with other Squibb approved chemotherapeutic agents in patients with metastatic testicular tumors whoc have already received appropriate surgical and/or radiotherapeutic procedures. An established combination therapy consists of Platinol, Blenoxane and Velbam. cisplatin Platinol Metastatic ovarian tumors —in Bristol-Myers established combination therapy with Squibb other approved chemotherapeutic agents: Ovarian-in established combination therapy with other approved chemotherapeutic agents in patients with metastatic ovarian tumors who have already received appropriate surgical and/or radiotherapeutic procedures. An established combination consists of Platinol and Adriamycin. Platinol, as a single agent, is indicated as secondary therapy in patients with metastatic ovarian tumors refractory to standard chemotherapy who have not previously received Platinol therapy. cisplatin Platinol as a single agent for patients with Bristol-Myers transitional cell bladder cancer which is Squibb no longer amenable to local treatments such as surgery and/or radiotherapy. cladribine Leustatin, 2- Treatment of active hairy cell leukemia. R.W. Johnson CdA Pharmaceutical Research Institute cyclophosphamide Cytoxan, Bristol-Myers Neosar Squibb cyclophosphamide Cytoxan Bristol-Myers Injection Squibb cyclophosphamide Cytoxan Bristol-Myers Injection Squibb cyclophosphamide Cytoxan Bristol-Myers Tablet Squibb cytarabine Cytosar-U Pharmacia & Upjohn Company cytarabine liposomal DepoCyt Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Skye established) Intrathecal therapy of Pharmaceuticals lymphomatous meningitis dacarbazine DTIC-Dome Bayer dactinomycin, Cosmegen Merck actinomycin D dactinomycin, Cosmegan Merck actinomycin D Darbepoetin alfa Aranesp Treatment of anemia associated with Amgen, Inc. chronic renal failure. Darbepoetin alfa Aranesp Aranesp is indicated for the treatment Amgen, Inc. of anemia in patients with non-myeloid malignancies where anemia is due to the effect of concomitantly administered chemotherapy. daunorubicin DanuoXome First line cytotoxic therapy for Nexstar, Inc. liposomal advanced, HIV related Kaposi's sarcoma. daunorubicin, Daunorubicin Leukemia/myelogenous/monocytic/erythroid Bedford Labs daunomycin of adults/remission induction in acute lymphocytic leukemia of children and adults. daunorubicin, Cerubidine In combination with approved Wyeth Ayerst daunomycin anticancer drugs for induction of remission in adult ALL. Denileukin diftitox Ontak Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Seragen, Inc. established) treatment of patients with persistent or recurrent cutaneous T- cell lymphoma whose malignant cells express the CD25 component of the IL-2 receptor dexrazoxane Zinecard Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit Pharmacia & subsequently established) Prevention Upjohn of cardiomyopathy associated with Company doxorubicin administration dexrazoxane Zinecard reducing the incidence and severity of Pharmacia & cardiomyopathy associated with Upjohn doxorubicin administration in women Company with metastatic breast cancer who have received a cumulative doxorubicin dose of 300 mg/m2 and who will continue to receive doxorubicin therapy to maintain tumor control. It is not recommended for use with the initiation of doxorubicin therapy. docetaxel Taxotere Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit Aventis subsequently established) Treatment Pharmaceutical of patients with locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer who have progressed during anthracycline-based therapy or have relapsed during anthracycline-based adjuvant therapy. docetaxel Taxotere For the treatment of locally advanced Aventis or metastatic breast cancer which has Pharmaceutical progressed during anthracycline-based treatment or relapsed during anthracycline-based adjuvant therapy. docetaxel Taxotere For locally advanced or metastatic Aventis non-small cell lung cancer after failure Pharmaceutical of prior platinum-based chemotherapy. docetaxel Taxotere Aventis Pharmaceutical docetaxel Taxotere in combination with cisplatin for the Aventis treatment of patients with Pharmaceutical unresectable, locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer who have not previously received chemotherapy for this condition. doxorubicin Adriamycin, Pharmacia & Rubex Upjohn Company doxorubicin Adriamycin Antibiotic, antitumor agent. Pharmacia & PFS Injection- Upjohn intravenous Company injection doxorubicin liposomal Doxil Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Sequus established) Treatment of AIDS-related Pharmaceuticals, Kaposi's sarcoma in patients with Inc. disease that has progressed on prior combination chemotherapy or in patients who are intolerant to such therapy. doxorubicin liposomal Doxil Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Sequus established) Treatment of metastatic Pharmaceuticals, carcinoma of the ovary in patient with Inc. disease that is refractory to both paclitaxel and platinum based regimens DROMOSTANOLONE DROMOSTANOLONE Eli Lilly PROPIONATE DROMOSTANOLONE MASTERONE SYNTEX PROPIONATE INJECTION Elliott's B Solution Elliott's B Diluent for the intrathecal Orphan Solution administration of methotrexate sodium Medical, Inc. and cytarabine for the prevention or treatment of meningeal leukemia or lymphocytic lymphoma. epirubicin Ellence A component of adjuvant therapy in Pharmacia & patients with evidence of axillary node Upjohn tumor involvement following resection Company of primary breast cancer. Epoetin alfa epogen EPOGENB is indicated for the Amgen, Inc. reatment of anemia related to therapy with zidovudine in HIV-infected patients. EPOGENB is indicated to elevate or maintain the red blood cell level (as manifested by the hematocrit or hemoglobin determinations) and to decrease the need for transfusions in these patients. EPOGEND is not indicated for the treatment of anemia in HIV-infected patients due to other factors such as iron or folate deficiencies, hemolysis or gastrointestinal bleeding, which should be managed appropriately. Epoetin alfa epogen EPOGENB is indicated for the Amgen, Inc. treatment of anemic patients (hemoglobin >10 to _<13 g/dL) scheduled to undergo elective, noncardiac, nonvascular surgery to reduce the need for allogeneic blood transfusions. Epoetin alfa epogen EPOGENB is indicated for the Amgen, Inc. treatment of anemia in patients with non-myeloid malignancies where anemia is due to the effect of concomitantly administered chemotherapy. EPOGEND is indicated to decrease the need for transfusions in patients who will be receiving concomitant chemotherapy for a minimum of 2 months. EPOGENB is not indicated for the treatment of anemia in cancer patients due to other factors such as iron or folate deficiencies, hemolysis or gastrointestinal bleeding, which should be managed appropriately. Epoetin alfa epogen EPOGEN is indicated for the treatment Amgen, Inch of anemia associated with CRF, including patients on dialysis (ESRD) and patients not on dialysis. estramustine Emcyt palliation of prostate cancer Pharmacia & Upjohn Company etoposide phosphate Etopophos Management of refractory testicular Bristol-Myers tumors, in combination with other Squibb approved chemotherapeutic agents. etoposide phosphate Etopophos Management of small cell lung cancer, Bristol-Myers first-line, in combination with other Squibb approved chemotherapeutic agents. etoposide phosphate Etopophos Management of refractory testicular Bristol-Myers tumors and small cell lung cancer. Squibb etoposide, VP-16 Vepesid Refractory testicular tumors-in Bristol-Myers combination therapy with other Squibb approved chemotherapeutic agents in patients with refractory testicular tumors who have already received appropriate surgical, chemotherapeutic and radiotherapeutic therapy. etoposide, VP-16 VePesid In combination with other approved Bristol-Myers chemotherapeutic agents as first line Squibb treatment in patients with small cell lung cancer. etoposide, VP-16 Vepesid In combination with other approved Bristol-Myers chemotherapeutic agents as first line Squibb treatment in patients with small cell lung cancer. exemestane Aromasin Treatment of advance breast cancer in Pharmacia & postmenopausal women whose Upjohn disease has progressed following Company tamoxifen therapy. Filgrastim Neupogen Amgen, Inc. Filgrastim Neupogen NEUPOGEN is indicated to reduce the Amgen, Inc. duration of neutropenia and neutropenia-related clinical sequelae, eg, febrile neutropenia, in patients with nonmyeloid malignancies undergoing myeloablative chemotherapy followed by marrow transplantation. Filgrastim Neupogen NEUPOGEN is indicated to decrease Amgen, Inc. the incidence of infection, as manifested by febrile neutropenia, in patients with nonmyeloid malignancies receiving myelosuppressive anticancer drugs associated with a significant incidence of severe neutropenia with fever. Filgrastim Neupogen NEUPOGEN is indicated for reducing Amgen, Inc. the time to neutrophil recovery and the duration of fever, following induction or consolidation hemotherapy treatment of adults with AML. floxuridine FUDR Roche (intraarterial) fludarabine Fludara Palliative treatment of patients with B- Berlex cell lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) who Laboratories have not responded or have Inc. progressed during treatment with at least one standard alkylating agent containing regimen. fluorouracil, 5-FU Adrucil prolong survival in combination with ICN Puerto leucovorin Rico fulvestrant Faslodex the treatment of hormone receptor- IPR positive metastatic breast cancer in postmenopausal women with disease progression following antiestrogen therapy gemcitabine Gemzar Treatment of patients with locally Eli Lilly advanced (nonresectable stage II or III) or metastatic (stage IV) adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Indicated for first-line treatment and for patients previously treated with a 5- fluorouracil-containing regimen. gemcitabine Gemzar For use in combination with cisplatin Eli Lilly for the first-line treatment of patients with inoperable, locally advanced (Stage IIIA or IIIB) or metastatic (Stage IV) non-small cell lung cancer. gemtuzumab Mylotarg Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Wyeth Ayerst ozogamicin established) Treatment of CD33 positive acute myeloid leukemia in patients in first relapse who are 60 years of age or older and who are not considered candidates for cytotoxic chemotherapy. goserelin acetate Zoladex Palliative treatment of advanced breast AstraZeneca Implant cancer in pre- and perimenopausal Pharmaceuticals women. goserelin acetate Zoladex AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals hydroxyurea Hydrea Bristol-Myers Squibb hydroxyurea Hydrea Decrease need for transfusions in Bristol-Myers sickle cell anemia Squibb Ibritumomab Tiuxetan Zevalin Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not IDEC established) treatment of patients with Pharmaceuticals relapsed or refractory low-grade, Corp follicular, or transformed B-cell non- Hodgkin's lymphoma, including patients with Rituximab refractory follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. idarubicin Idamycin For use in combination with other Adria approved antileukemic drugs for the Laboratories treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in adults. idarubicin Idamycin In combination with other approved Pharmacia & antileukemic drugs for the treatment of Upjohn acute non-lymphocytic leukemia in Company adults. ifosfamide IFEX Third line chemotherapy of germ cell Bristol-Myers testicular cancer when used in Squibb combination with certain other approved antineoplastic agents. imatinib mesylate Gleevec Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Novartis established) Initial therapy of chronic myelogenous leukemia imatinib mesylate Gleevec Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Novartis established) metastatic or unresectable malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumors imatinib mesylate Gleevec Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Novartis established) Initial treatment of newly diagnosed Ph+ chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Interferon alfa-2a Roferon-A Hoffmann-La Roche Inc. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering injection is indicated as adjuvant to Corp surgical treatment in patients 18 years of age or older with malignant melanoma who are free of disease but at high risk for systemic recurrence within 56 days of surgery. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for the initial Corp treatment of clinically aggressive follicular Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma in conjunction with anthracycline- containing combination chemotherapy in patients 18 years of age or older. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for intralesional Corp treatment of selected patients 18 years of age or older with condylomata acuminata involving external surfaces of the genital and perianal areas. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for the treatment Corp of chronic hepatitis C in patients 18 years of age or older with compensated liver disease who have a history of blood or blood-product exposure and/or are HCV antibody positive. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for the treatment Corp of chronic hepatitis B in patients 18 years of age or older with compensated liver disease and HBV replication. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for the treatment Corp of patients 18 years of age or older with hairy cell leukemia. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Interferon alfa-2b, recombinant for Schering Injection is indicated for the treatment Corp of selected patients 18 years of age or older with AIDS-Related Kaposi's Sarcoma. The likelihood of response to INTRON A therapy is greater in patients who are without systemic symptoms, who have limited lymphadenopathy and who have a relatively intact immune system as indicated by total CD4 count. Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Schering Corp Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Schering Corp Interferon alfa-2b Intron A Intron A Schering Corp irinotecan Camptosar Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit Pharmacia & subsequently established) Treatment Upjohn of patients with metastatic carcinoma Company of the colon or rectum whose disease has recurred or progressed following 5-FU-based therapy. irinotecan Camptosar Follow up of treatment of metastatic Pharmacia & carcinoma of the colon or rectum Upjohn whose disease has recurred or Company progressed following 5-FU-based therapy. irinotecan Camptosar For first line treatment n combination Pharmacia & with 5-FU/leucovorin of metastatic Upjohn carcinoma of the colon or rectum. Company letrozole Femara Treatment of advanced breast cancer Novartis in postmenopausal women. letrozole Femara First-line treatment of postmenopausal Novartis women with hormone receptor positive or hormone receptor unknown locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer. letrozole Femara Novartis leucovorin Wellcovorin, Leucovorin calcium is indicated fro use Immunex Leucovorin in combination with 5-fluorouracil to Corporation prolong survival in the palliative treatment of patients with advanced colorectal cancer. leucovorin Leucovorin Immunex Corporation leucovorin Leucovorin Immunex Corporation leucovorin Leucovorin Immunex Corporation leucovorin Leucovorin In combination with fluorouracil to Lederle prolong survival in the palliative Laboratories treatment of patients with advanced colorectal cancer. levamisole Ergamisol Adjuvant treatment in combination with Janssen 5-fluorouracil after surgical resection in Research patients with Dukes' Stage C colon Foundation cancer. lomustine, CCNU CeeBU Bristol-Myers Squibb meclorethamine, Mustargen Merck nitrogen mustard megestrol acetate Megace Bristol-Myers Squibb melphalan, L-PAM Alkeran Glaxo SmithKline melphalan, L-PAM Alkeran Systemic administration for palliative Glaxo treatment of patients with multiple SmithKline myeloma for whom oral therapy is not appropriate. mercaptopurine, 6-MP Purinethol Glaxo SmithKline mesna Mesnex Prevention of ifosfamide-induced Asta Medica hemorrhagic cystitis methotrexate Methotrexate Lederle Laboratories methotrexate Methotrexate Lederle Laboratories methotrexate Methotrexate Lederle Laboratories methotrexate Methotrexate Lederle Laboratories methotrexate Methotrexate osteosarcoma Lederle Laboratories methotrexate Methotrexate Lederle Laboratories methoxsalen Uvadex For the use of UVADEX with the UVAR Therakos Photopheresis System in the palliative treatment of the skin manifestations of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) that is unresponsive to other forms of treatment. mitomycin C Mutamycin Bristol-Myers Squibb mitomycin C Mitozytrex therapy of disseminated Supergen adenocarcinoma of the stomach or pancreas in proven combinations with other approved chemotherapeutic agents and as palliative treatment when other modalities have failed. mitotane Lysodren Bristol-Myers Squibb mitoxantrone Novantrone For use in combination with Immunex corticosteroids as initial chemotherapy Corporation for the treatment of patients with pain related to advanced hormone- refractory prostate cancer. mitoxantrone Novantrone For use with other approved drugs in Lederle the initial therapy for acute Laboratories nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL) in adults. nandrolone Durabolin-50 Organon phenpropionate Nofetumomab Verluma Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma KG (formerly Dr. Karl Thomae GmbH) Oprelvekin Neumega Genetics Institute, Inc. Oprelvekin Neumega Genetics Institute, Inc. Oprelvekin Neumega Neumega is indicated for the Genetics prevention of severe thrombocytopenia Institute, Inc. and the reduction of the need for platelet transfusions following myelosuppressive chemotherapy in adult patients with nonmyeloid malignancies who are at high risk of severe thrombocytopenia. oxaliplatin Eloxatin Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Sanofi established) in combination with Synthelabo infusional 5-FU/LV, is indicated for the treatment of patients with metastatic carcinoma of the colon or rectum whose disease has recurred or progressed during or within 6 months of completion of first line therapy with the combination of bolus 5-FU/LV and irinotecan. paclitaxel Paxene treatment of advanced AIDS-related Baker Norton Kaposi's sarcoma after failure of first Pharmaceuticals, line or subsequent systemic Inc. chemotherapy paclitaxel Taxol Treatment of patients with metastatic Bristol-Myers carcinoma of the ovary after failure of Squibb first-line or subsequent chemotherapy. paclitaxel Taxol Treatment of breast cancer after failure Bristol-Myers of combination chemotherapy for Squibb metastatic disease or relapse within 6 months of adjuvant chemotherapy. Prior therapy should have included an anthracycline unless clinically contraindicated. paclitaxel Taxol New dosing regimen for patients who Bristol-Myers have failed initial or subsequent Squibb chemotherapy for metastatic carcinoma of the ovary paclitaxel Taxol second line therapy for AIDS related Bristol-Myers Kaposi's sarcoma. Squibb paclitaxel Taxol For first-line therapy for the treatment Bristol-Myers of advanced carcinoma of the ovary in Squibb combination with cisplatin. paclitaxel Taxol for use in combination with cisplatin, Bristol-Myers for the first-line treatment of non-small Squibb cell lung cancer in patients who are not candidates for potentially curative surgery and/or radiation therapy. paclitaxel Taxol For the adjuvant treatment of node- Bristol-Myers positive breast cancer administered Squibb sequentially to standard doxorubicin- containing combination therapy. paclitaxel Taxol First line ovarian cancer with 3 hour Bristol-Myers infusion. Squibb pamidronate Aredia Treatment of osteolytic bone Novartis metastases of breast cancer in conjunction with standard antineoplastic therapy. pegademase Adagen Enzyme replacement therapy for Enzon (Pegademase patients with severe combined Bovine) immunodeficiency asa result of adenosine deaminase deficiency. Pegaspargase Oncaspar Enzon, Inc. Pegfilgrastim Neulasta Neulasta is indicated to decrease the Amgen, Inc. incidence of infection, as manifested by febrile neutropenia, in patients with non-myeloid malignancies receiving myelosuppressive anti-cancer drugs associated with a clinically significant incidence of febrile neutropenia. pentostatin Nipent Single agent treatment for adult Parke-Davis patients with alpha interferon refractory Pharmaceutical hairy cell leukemia Co. pentostatin Nipent Single-agent treatment for untreated Parke-Davis hairy cell leukemia patients with active Pharmaceutical disease as defined by clinically Co. significant anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, or disease-related symptoms. (Supplement for front-line therapy.) pipobroman Vercyte Abbott Labs plicamycin, Mithracin Pfizer Labs mithramycin porfimer sodium Photofrin For use in photodynamic therapy QLT Photo- (PDT) for palliation of patients with therapeutics completely obstructing esophageal Inc. cancer, or patients with partially obstructing esophageal cancer who cannot be satisfactorily treated with ND-YAG laser therapy. porfimer sodium Photofrin For use in photodynamic therapy for QLT Photo- treatment of microinvasive therapeutics endobronchial nonsmall cell lung Inc. cancer in patients for whom surgery and radiotherapy are not indicated. porfimer sodium Photofrin For use in photodynamic therapy QLT Photo- (PDT) for reduction of obstruction and therapeutics palliation of symptoms in patients with Inc. completely or partially obstructing endobroncial nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC). procarbazine Matulane Sigma Tau Pharms quinacrine Atabrine Abbott Labs Rasburicase Elitek ELITEK is indicated for the initial Sanofi- management of plasma uric acid levels Synthelabo, in pediatric patients with leukemia, Inc. lymphoma, and solid tumor malignancies who are receiving anti- cancer therapy expected to result in tumor lysis and subsequent elevation of plasma uric acid. Rituximab Rituxan Genentech, Inc. Sargramostim Prokine Immunex Corp streptozocin Zanosar Antineoplastic agent. Pharmacia & Upjohn Company talc Sclerosol For the prevention of the recurrence of Bryan malignant pleural effusion in symptomatic patients. tamoxifen Nolvadex AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals tamoxifen Nolvadex As a single agent to delay breast AstraZeneca cancer recurrence following total Pharmaceuticals mastectomy and axillary dissection in postmenopausal women with breast cancer (T1-3, N1, M0) tamoxifen Nolvadex For use in premenopausal women with AstraZeneca metastatic breast cancer as an Pharmaceuticals alternative to oophorectomy or ovarian irradiation tamoxifen Nolvadex For use in women with axillary node- AstraZeneca negative breast cancer adjuvant Pharmaceuticals therapy. tamoxifen Nolvadex Metastatic breast cancer in men. AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals tamoxifen Nolvadex Equal bioavailability of a 20 mg AstraZeneca Nolvadex tablet taken once a day to a Pharmaceuticals 10 mg Nolvadex tablet taken twice a day. tamoxifen Nolvadex to reduce the incidence of breast AstraZeneca cancer in women at high risk for breast Pharmaceuticals cancer tamoxifen Nolvadex In women with DCIS, following breast AstraZeneca surgery and radiation, Nolvadex is Pharmaceuticals indicated to reduce the risk of invasive breast cancer. temozolomide Temodar Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Schering established) Treatment of adult patients with refractory anaplastic astrocytoma, i.e., patients at first relapse with disease progression on a nitrosourea and procarbazine containing regimen teniposide, VM-26 Vumon In combination with other approved Bristol-Myers anticancer agents for induction therapy Squibb in patients with refractory childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (all). testolactone Teslac Bristol-Myers Squibb testolactone Teslac Bristol-Myers Squibb thioguanine, 6-TG Thioguanine Glaxo SmithKline thiotepa Thioplex Immunex Corporation thiotepa Thioplex Immunex Corporation thiotepa Thioplex Lederle Laboratories topotecan Hycamtin Treatment of patients with metastatic Glaxo carcinoma of the ovary after failure of SmithKline initial or subsequent chemotherapy. topotecan Hycamtin Treatment of small cell lung cancer Glaxo sensitive disease after failure of first- SmithKline line chemotherapy. In clinical studies submitted to support approval, sensitive disease was defined as disease responding to chemotherapy but subsequently progressing at least 60 days (in the phase 3 study) or at least 90 days (in the phase 2 studies) after chemotherapy toremifene Fareston Treatment of advanced breast cancer Orion Corp. in postmenopausal women. Tositumomab Bexxar Accel. Approv. (clinical benefit not Corixa established) Treatment of patients with Corporation CD20 positive, follicular, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, with and without transformation, whose disease is refractory to Rituximab and has relapsed following chemotherapy Trastuzumab Herceptin HERCEPTIN as a single agent is Genentech, indicated for the treatment of patients Inc. with metastatic breast cancer whose tumors overexpress the HER2 protein and who have received one or more chemotherapy regimens for their metastatic disease. Trastuzumab Herceptin Herceptin in combination with Genentech, paclitaxel is indicated for treatment of Inc. patients with metastatic breast cancer whose tumors overexpress the HER-2 protein and had not received chemotherapy for their metastatic disease Trastuzumab Herceptin Genentech, Inc. Trastuzumab Herceptin Genentech, Inc. Trastuzumab Herceptin Genentech, Inc. tretinoin, ATRA Vesanoid Induction of remission in patients with Roche acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) who are refractory to or unable to tolerate anthracycline based cytotoxic chemotherapeutic regimens. Uracil Mustard Uracil Mustard Roberts Labs Capsules valrubicin Valstar For intravesical therapy of BCG- Anthra --> refractory carcinoma in situ (CIS) of Medeva the urinary bladder in patients for whom immediate cystectomy would be associated with unacceptable morbidity or mortality. vinblastine Velban Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vincristine Oncovin Eli Lilly vinorelbine Navelbine Single agent or in combination with Glaxo cisplatin for the first-line treatment of SmithKline ambulatory patients with unresectable, advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). vinorelbine Navelbine Navelbine is indicated as a single Glaxo agent or in combination with cisplatin SmithKline for the first-line treatment of ambulatory patients with unreseactable, advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In patients with Stage IV NSCLC, Navelbine is indicated as a single agent or in combination with cisplatin. In Stage III NSCLC, Navelbine is indicated in combination with cisplatin. zoledronate Zometa the treatment of patients with multiple Novartis myeloma and patients with documented bone metastases from solid tumors, in conjunction with standard antineoplastic therapy. Prostate ancer should have progressed after treatment with at least one hormonal therapy

TABLE 2 Injectable therapeutic agents for diabetes. Type of Insulin Example Rapid-acting Humalog (lispro) (Eli Lilly) NovoLog (aspart) (Novo Nordisk) Short-acting (Regular) Humulin R (Eli Lilly) Novolin R Novo Nordisk Intermediate-acting (NPH) Humulin N (Eli Lilly) Novolin N (Novo Nordisk) Humulin L (Eli Lilly) Novolin L (Novo Nordisk) Intermediate- and Humulin 50/50 short-acting mixtures Humulin 70/30 Humalog Mix 75/25 Humalog Mix 50/50 (Eli Lilly) Novolin 70/30 Novolog Mix 70/30 (Novo Nordisk) Long-acting Ultralente (Eli Lilly) Lantus (glargine) (Aventis)

TABLE 3 Oral therapeutic agents for the treatment of diabetes. Category Generic Name Brand Name Manufacturer Sulfonylurea Chlorpropamide Diabinese Pfizer Glipizide Glucotrol Pfizer Glyburide DiaBeta/ Aventis, Micronase/ Pharmacia Glynase and Upjohn Glimepiride Amaryl Aventis Meglitinide Repaglinide Prandin Novo Nordisk Nateglinide Nateglinide Starlix Novartis Biguanide Metformin Glucophage Bristol Myers Squibb Metformin (long Glucophage XR Bristol Myers lasting) Squibb Metformin with Glucovance Bristol Myers glyburide Squibb Thiazolidine- Rosiglitazone Avandia SmithKline dione Beecham (now (Glitazone) GlaxoSmithKline) Pioglitazone Actos Takeda Pharmaceuticals Alpha-Glucose Acarbose Precose Bayer Inhibitor Miglitol Glyset Pharmacia and Upjohn

TABLE 4 Body weight and fat pad weights at baseline and 3-week after diet treatment in aP2- agouti transgenic mice fed low and high calcium diets¹. Baseline 3-week after Low-Ca diet High-Ca diet Low-Ca diet High-Ca diet p value Body weight (g)¹ 25.28 ± 0.39 24.47 ± 0.47 32.96 ± 0.95  28.56 ± 0.57*  P = 0.023 Body fat (g) N/A N/A 4.47 ± 0.37 2.44 ± 0.23* P = 0.007 Subcutaneous fat² (g) N/A N/A 1.76 ± 0.17 0.94 ± 0.11* P = 0.015 Visceral fat³ (g) N/A N/A 2.48 ± 0.19 1.31 ± 0.11* P = 0.004 ¹Values are means ± SD, n = 10. p-values indicate significant level between animals on the basal diet and those on the high-Ca diet. ²Subscapular fat pad ³Sum of perirenal and abdominal fat pads

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1. An in vitro method of screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising: a) contacting one or more cell(s) with a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is not dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium; and b) measuring one or more of the following parameters: i) intracellular concentrations of calcium in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease of intracellular calcium concentration in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; ii) UCP2 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an increase in UCP2 expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; iii) NADPH oxidase expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in NADPH oxidase expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; iv) UCP3 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an increase in UCP3 expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; v) NADPH oxidase expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in NADPH oxidase expression in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; vi) 11β-HSD expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in the expression of 11β-HSD in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; vii) TNF-α, CD14, MIF, M-CSF, MIP, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in the expression of TNF-α, CD14, MIF (macrophage inhibitory factor), MIP (macrophage inhibitory protein), M-CSF (macrophage colony stimulating factor), MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), G-CSF (granulocyte colony stimulating factor) or IL-6 in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; or viii) IL-15 or adiponectin expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an increase in the expression of IL-15 or adiponectin in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said one or more cell(s) is a adipocyte or an adipocyte cell line.
 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein said adipocyte or adipocyte cell line is human(s) or a murine.
 4. A method of identifying or screening compounds or compositions suitable for reducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising: a) administering a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions to at least one test subject with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions, when administered orally to said test subject, is not being administered to said at least one test subject orally as a component of the diet of said at least one test subject or as dietary calcium to said test subject; and b) measuring one or more of the following parameters: i) intracellular calcium concentrations in cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein a decrease of intracellular calcium concentration in the cells of a test subject as compared to the intracellular concentrations of calcium in the cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; ii) UCP2 expression in cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein an increase of UCP2 expression in the cells of a test subject as compared to the UCP2 expression in the cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; iii) NADPH oxidase expression in cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein a decrease of NADPH oxidase expression in the cells of a test subject as compared to the NADPH oxidase expression in the cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; iv) UCP3 expression in skeletal muscle cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein an increase in UCP3 expression in the skeletal muscle cells of a test subject as compared to UCP3 expression in the skeletal muscle cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; v) NADPH oxidase expression in skeletal muscle cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein a decrease of NADPH oxidase expression in the skeletal muscle cells of a test subject as compared to the NADPH oxidase expression in the skeletal muscle cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; vi) 11β-HSD expression in visceral adipocyte tissue or cells of said at least one test subject and at least one control subject, wherein a decrease of 11β-HSD expression in the visceral adipocyte tissue or cells of a test subject as compared to the 11β-HSD expression in the visceral adipocyte tissue or cells of at least one control subject is indicative of a compound, composition, combination of compounds or combination of compositions suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS in a subject; vii) TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6 expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein a decrease in the expression of TNF-α, CD14, MIF, MIP, M-CSF, MCP-1, G-CSF or IL-6 in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS; or viii) IL-15 or adiponectin expression in said one or more cell(s), wherein an increase in the expression of IL-15 or adiponectin in said cell(s) is indicative of a compound or composition suitable for use in reducing the production of ROS.
 6. The method according to claim 4, wherein a candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is administered to a subject via intravenous, intraarterial, buccal, topical, transdermal, rectal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraosseous, transmucosal, or intraperitoneal routes of administration.
 7. The method according to claim 5, wherein said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is administered to at least one test subject orally with the proviso that said candidate compound, combination of candidate compounds, candidate composition, or combination of candidate compositions is not being administered to said at least one test subject orally as a component of the diet of said at least one test subject or as dietary calcium to said test subject.
 8. A method of treating diseases associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that increase intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to increase the intracellular concentrations of calcium in the cells of the individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium.
 9. The method according to claim 8, further comprising the step of diagnosing or identifying an individual as having a disease or disorder associated with ROS or diagnosing or identifying an individual having elevated ROS levels comprising measuring the levels of ROS and comparing the measured levels against a standard or collection of ROS levels from control subjects.
 10. The method according to claim 8, wherein the ROS-associated disease or disorder is cataracts, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, cancer, male infertility, inflammation, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or aging.
 11. The method according to claim 9, wherein the ROS-associated disease or disorder is cataracts, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, cancer, male infertility, inflammation, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis or aging.
 12. The method according to claim 8, wherein said ROS-associated disease or disorder is cancer-associated ROS disease or disorders and said method comprises the administration of one or more composition comprising calcium, or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium, and a therapeutic agent selected from alkylating agents, antibiotics which affect nucleic acids, platinum compounds, mitotic inhibitors, antimetabolites, camptothecin derivatives, biological response modifiers, hormone therapies or any of the therapeutic agents is identified in Table
 1. 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium, or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium, are administered as a single composition.
 14. The method according to claim 12, wherein the therapeutic agent or therapeutic agents and calcium, or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium, are administered as separate or different compositions.
 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the separate or different compositions are administered simultaneously, sequentially or contemporaneously.
 16. A method of reducing ROS production in a diabetic individual comprising the administration of one or more composition comprising one or more therapeutic agent as set forth in Table 2 or Table 3 and calcium, or physiologically acceptable salts of calcium, in an amount sufficient to reduce the production of ROS in said individual.
 17. A method of altering the expression of cytokines in an individual or the cytokine profile of an individual comprising the administration of a compound, composition, combination of compounds, or combination of compositions that decrease intracellular calcium levels to an individual in need of such treatment in amounts sufficient to decrease intracellular levels of calcium in the cells of the individual, decrease TNF-α, CD14, MIP, MIF, M-CSF, G-CSF or IL-6 expression, or any combination thereof, in the individual, and increase the expression of IL-15, adiponectin, or both IL-15 or adiponectin in the individual with the proviso that said compound, combination of compounds, composition, or combination of compositions is not a dietary material containing calcium or dietary calcium.
 18. A composition comprising one or more therapeutic agent selected from Tables 1 or 2 or 3 in combination with calcium or one or more physiological salts of calcium.
 19. The composition according to claim 18, wherein said composition contains between: 1 and 2000 mg; 900 and 1500 mg; 1000 and 1400 mg; 1200 and 1300 mg; 1100 and 1300 mg; or 1200 and 1300 mg of calcium or one or more physiologically acceptable salts thereof.
 20. The composition according to claim 18, wherein said one or more physiological salts of calcium are selected from calcium phosphates, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium tartrate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium metasilicate, calcium malate, secondary calcium orthophosphate, calcium citrate, or calcium hydroxide.
 21. A method of increasing the in vitro expression of MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, or MIP-1α comprising contacting a composition comprising a carrier and calcitriol (1, 25-(OH)₂-D₃) with a adipocytes, skeletal muscle cells, skeletal muscle cell lines, human adipocyte cell lines, murine adipocyte cell lines or transformed host cells comprising MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, or MIP-1α genes and culturing said cells under conditions that allow for the production of MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, or MIP-1α.
 22. The method according to claim 21, further comprising the recovery of MIF, M-CSF, MIP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-13, MIG, IL-5, VEGF, CD14, G-CSF, TNF-α, RANTES, or MIP-1α.
 23. A method of increasing fatty acid oxidation in muscle cells or decreasing the expression of fatty acid synthase in adipocytes comprising the administration of a composition comprising leucine to a subject in an amount sufficient to increase fatty acid oxidation in said muscle cells or decreasing the expression of fatty acid synthase in adipocytes.
 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein about 1 to 10 grams of leucine is administered to said individual.
 25. The method according to claim 24, wherein said leucine is administered orally. 